Legal Current Affairs for CLAT (December 2024)- 1

Table of Contents
1. Protected Area Regime Reimposition
2. Sahitya Akademi Awards 2024
3. India's First Bio-Bitumen National Highway Stretch
4. Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Amendment Bill, 2024
5. New Reserve Bank of India Governor
6. Demise of Ustad Zakir Hussain
7. Amendment to Conduct of Election Rules, 1961
8. Death of Dr Manmohan Singh
9. Sword of Honour for Ram Mandir Project
10. Ajmer Dargah Row
11. Ken-Betwa River Linking Project (KBLP)
12. International Current Affairs: Dinga Dinga Virus
13. US-China Science and Technology Agreement Renewal
14. China's CR450 High-Speed Train
15. Birthright Citizenship Debate in the United States
16. Citizenship in India
17. UN Champions of the Earth Award 2024
18. Swiss Suspension of India's Most Favoured Nation Status in DTAA
19. EFTA
20. India - Switzerland Relationship
21. Paris Agreement
22. Syrian Civil War
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Protected Area Regime Reimposition

• Recently, the Union Ministry of Home Affairs reimposed the Protected Area Regime in Manipur, Nagaland and Mizoram to restrict and monitor movement of foreigners.
• Foreign visitors to these states must now obtain prior permission and a Protected Area Permit (PAP) from the government.

What Is a Protected Area?

• Protected areas are those lying between the Inner Line and the international border of certain states and union territories.
• The Foreigners (Protected Areas) Order, 1958, defines the Inner Line in specific regions.

Territories Covered Under the Order

• Entire states: Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.
• Entire state: Sikkim (partly in Protected Area and partly in Restricted Area).
• Parts of Rajasthan and parts of Uttarakhand.

Restricted Areas

• A subsequent Order in 1963 declared the Andaman & Nicobar Islands and parts of Sikkim as Restricted Areas.
• Foreign nationals require a Restricted Area Permit (RAP) to visit restricted regions.

Obtaining Permits

• PAPs and RAPs can be issued by Indian missions, the MHA, district magistrates, resident commissioners, home commissioners or the Foreigners Regional Registration Office (FRRO).
• Permits are normally valid for 10 days and can be extended.
• Each state or union territory may have additional rules for foreign entry into protected areas.

Inner Line Permit (ILP)

• Indian citizens who are not residents of ILP states require an Inner Line Permit to enter protected areas.
• The ILP concept originates from colonial-era regulations under the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation Act, 1873.

Visiting Protected or Restricted Areas

• Some protected areas allow foreign tourists, in groups or as couples, after obtaining the required permit.
• Foreign nationals on visas other than tourist visas need prior MHA approval before PAP/RAP is granted for non-tourist activities.
• PAP or RAP for specific purposes (business, employment, studies) is endorsed on the foreign national's passport.
• If areas are not open for tourism on a tourist visa, prior reference to the MHA is required.
• Foreign nationals holding non-tourist visas but intending only tourism may be granted a special permit for places open to tourists.

Background And Recent Changes

• On 30 December 2010, MHA instructions excluded Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland from the Protected Area regime.
• The exclusion began as a one-year relaxation and was extended repeatedly until 2022, when it was further relaxed through 31 December 2027.
• Nationals of Afghanistan, China and Pakistan, and persons of origin from these countries, remained subject to prior MHA approval for visits.
• All foreigners visiting these states previously had to register with the FRRO within 24 hours of arrival.
• Myanmar nationals were excluded from PAP requirements for these states, subject to conditions.
• The recent reimposition specifies that no foreigner may enter or remain in any protected area except in accordance with a central government permit or an authorised office's permit.
• Permits must state place of entry, place of residence and period of stay.

Security Context

• The decision follows growing security concerns in border areas.
• Manipur, which borders Myanmar, has seen ethnic violence between tribal Kuki-Zo groups and the Meitei people since 3 May 2023.
• Undocumented migrants came into Manipur after the February 2021 military coup in Myanmar.
• India's 1,643 km border with Myanmar passes through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.
• The Free Movement Regime allowing visa-free movement within 16 km of the border was suspended by MHA in January.

Sahitya Akademi Awards 2024

• The Sahitya Akademi announced its annual awards in 21 languages.
• The Executive Board approved the awards under the chairmanship of Sri Madhav Kaushik, President of Sahitya Akademi.
• The awards cover books first published between 1 January 2018 and 31 December 2022.
• The presentation ceremony is scheduled for 8 March 2025 at Kamani Auditorium, Copernicus Marg, New Delhi.

About the Sahitya Akademi Award

• The Sahitya Akademi Award is India's national literary honour given annually for outstanding books of literary merit.
• Eligible works are in the 22 languages of the Eighth Schedule, plus English and Rajasthani.
• The award was established in 1954 and first conferred in 1955.
• It comprises a casket with an engraved copper plaque, a shawl and a cash prize of Rs. 1,00,000.
• The plaque was designed by film-maker Satyajit Ray.
• The award is India's second-highest literary honour after the Jnanpith Award.

Eligibility Criteria

• The writer must be an Indian national and the work should be published in India.
• The book must be a significant contribution to its language and literature.
• The work must be first published during the five years immediately preceding the year of the award.
• Translations and multi-author anthologies are not eligible.

2024 Awardees (Selected)

• Poetry (Hindi): Gagan Gill - Main Jab Tak Aai Bahar.
• Poetry (Punjabi): Paul Kaur - Sun Gunvanta Sun Budhivanta: Itihaasnama Punjab.
• Poetry (Malayalam): K Jayakumar - Pingalakeshini.
• Poetry (Manipuri): Haobam Satyabati Devi - Mainu Bora Nungshi Sheirol.
• Novel (English): Easterine Kire - Spirit Nights.
• Novel (Kashmiri): Sohan Kaul - Psychiatric Ward.
• Short stories (Nepali): Yuva Baral - Chhichimira.
• Play (Santali): Maheshwar Sorn - Seched Sawnta Ren Andha Manmi.
• Research (Tamil): AR Venkatachalapathy - Tirunelveli Ezhuchiyum Vaa Vuu Ciyum.
• Literary criticism (Kannada): KV Narayana - Nudigala Alivu.

About Sahitya Akademi

• The Sahitya Akademi is India's National Academy of Letters, set up to promote literature in Indian languages.
• It was constituted by government resolution on 15 December 1952 and inaugurated in 1954.
• Initially executive in form, it later registered as a society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
• Governance is by a General Council, an Executive Board and a Finance Committee.
• The office is at Rabindra Bhavan near Mandi House, Delhi.
• It publishes two bimonthly journals: Indian Literature (English) and Samkaleen Bharatiya Sahitya (Hindi).

Other Awards Given by the Akademi

• Bal Sahitya Puraskar: For children's literature first published during the five years prior to the award year.
• Yuva Puraskar: For authors aged 35 or below.
• Fellowships: Highest honours conferred through election as Fellows and Honorary Fellows.
• Bhasha Samman: For contributions to Indian languages not covered among the 24 major ones and for classical and medieval literature.
• Prize for Translation: For outstanding translations into one of the 24 major Indian languages; instituted in 1989.
• Premchand Fellowships: Started in 2005 for persons of eminence in culture from SAARC countries.

India's First Bio-Bitumen National Highway Stretch

• Union Minister Nitin Gadkari inaugurated India's first bio-bitumen based highway stretch on NH-44 at Mansar, Nagpur, Maharashtra.
• The project uses lignin-based bio-bitumen technology.

About the Project

• Lignin is a natural polymer in plant cell walls and is abundant in agricultural waste.
• Praj Industries is implementing the project in collaboration with CSIR-Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), NHAI and Oriental.
• CRRI conducts R&D on road design, construction, maintenance and traffic planning; it was established in 1952 under CSIR.

What Is Bitumen?

• Bitumen (asphalt or tar) is a sticky, black, highly viscous liquid or semi-solid produced during crude oil refining.
• It is mainly hydrocarbons and offers strong adhesive and waterproofing properties.
• Bitumen is used to bind materials in road and runway construction.
• India's bitumen consumption in 2023-24 was 88 lakh tonnes and is expected to rise to 100 lakh tonnes in 2024-25.
• About half of India's bitumen is imported, costing roughly ₹25,000-30,000 crore annually.

Technology And Trials

• Praj converts crude lignin into Lignin Bio-Bitumen as a sustainable alternative to fossil bitumen.
• A service road in Halol, Gujarat, was laid using lignin bio-bitumen as a component and evaluated by CSIR-CRRI after 2.5 years and three monsoons.
• The evaluation found satisfactory performance with no distress, informing the Nagpur-Mansar project.
• Processing lignin into bio-bitumen can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 70% compared to conventional bitumen.
• The mix also contains 10% rubber powder, reducing the share of petroleum bitumen.
• Bio-bitumen can be blended up to 15% with conventional bitumen; meeting 15% blending would need about 15 lakh tonnes of bio-bitumen.
• Such adoption could save approximately ₹4,000-4,500 crore in foreign exchange.

Evaluation And Next Steps

• CRRI will assess the road's performance under heavy traffic and different weather over the next two years.
• The endurance criterion includes road deflection remaining within 0.4 mm during this period.
• After the detailed report, bitumen manufacturers will be guided to develop sourcing policies for lignin blending.
• A 40-grade bio-bitumen, claimed to be stronger than conventional bitumen, has been developed.

About NHAI And CSIR

• The National Highways Authority of India develops, maintains and manages national highways; it was constituted under the NHAI Act, 1998.
• NHAI headquarters is in Dwarka, Delhi, and Santosh Kumar Yadav is the chairman.
• CSIR promotes R&D for scientific, industrial and economic growth; established in 1942 under the DSIR and operating autonomously.
• The Prime Minister is ex-officio President of CSIR; N. Kalaiselvi is the Director General.

Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Amendment Bill, 2024

• The Rajya Sabha passed the Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Amendment Bill, 2024, by voice vote.
• The Bill amends the Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Act, 1948, and aims to delink petroleum operations from mining.

Why the Amendment Was Needed

• The 1948 law originally covered mines and minerals; after the Mines and Minerals Act of 1957, the 1948 legislation was renamed to focus on oilfields.
• The Act uses the term "mineral oil" but did not define it; the Bill corrects this omission.
• Because petroleum is extracted by drilling, separating it from mining terminology simplifies regulation and eases doing business.

Major Changes Introduced

Definitions

• The Bill defines "mineral oils" as any naturally occurring hydrocarbon, whether gas, liquid, viscous or solid, or a mixture.
• Resources such as crude oil and natural gas fall under the definition.
• Coal, lignite and helium occurring with petroleum, coal or shale are excluded because coal and lignite are governed by the Mines and Minerals Act.

Petroleum Lease

• The Bill replaces "mining leases" with "petroleum leases".
• Petroleum lease is defined to cover prospecting, exploration, development, production, making merchantable and disposal of mineral oils.
• Provisions previously governing mining leases will now apply to petroleum leases and the Centre's rule-making powers in that domain.

Decriminalisation of Offences

• The Act currently prescribes imprisonment up to six months and a fine of Rs 1,000 for rule violations.
• The Bill replaces prison terms with civil penalties up to Rs 25 lakh.
• Offences attracting Rs 25 lakh penalties include unauthorised activities related to mineral oils (exploration, prospecting, production without a valid lease) and non-payment of royalty.
• Continued violation may attract penalties up to Rs 10 lakh per day.

Private Investment

• The Bill contains provisions to encourage private investment and spur domestic petroleum production.
• Existing mining leases will remain valid and will not be altered to the lessee's disadvantage during their lease period.
• The Bill allows shared use of production and processing infrastructure to lower costs and help smaller players enter the market.

Adjudication And Appeals

• The central government will appoint an officer of Joint Secretary rank or above to adjudicate penalties.
• Appeals against adjudicator decisions will lie before the Appellate Tribunal specified under the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board Act, 2006.
• The 2006 Act designates the Appellate Tribunal for Electricity as the appellate forum.

Rule-Making Powers

• The Bill retains central rule-making powers and expands them to include merger and combination of petroleum leases, sharing of infrastructure, lessees' environmental obligations and alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.
• Existing rule areas include regulating grant of leases, lease terms, collection of royalties and conservation and production methods.

Criticism

Violation of States' Rights

• Opposition members argued the Bill affects states' rights to tax mining activities and collect royalties.
• A nine-judge Supreme Court bench held in Mineral Area Development Authority Etc v. M/S Steel Authority of India that states have exclusive power to tax mining activities under Entry 50 of the State List.
• Reframing mining leases as petroleum leases and limiting scope to mineral oils could place the law under Entry 53 of the Union List, expanding Centre's regulatory reach.
• The Union Minister for Petroleum and Natural Gas stated states would retain a measure of control since they grant petroleum leases.

Environmental Concerns

• Opposition members warned that handing more scope to private players might impact the environment.
• Replacing criminal penalties with civil fines and securing non-alteration clauses for leases could give private actors greater operational discretion, raising environmental oversight concerns.

New Reserve Bank of India Governor

• The Appointments Committee of the Cabinet appointed Sanjay Malhotra as the 26th Governor of the Reserve Bank of India for three years.
• He succeeded Shaktikanta Das, whose six-year term ended on 10 December 2024.

Who Is Sanjay Malhotra?

• Sanjay Malhotra, aged 56, is a 1990 batch Rajasthan cadre IAS officer.
• He holds a bachelor's degree in computer science engineering from IIT Kanpur and a master's in public policy from Princeton University, USA.
• He has over 33 years of experience across power, finance and taxation, information technology and mines.
• Prior to the appointment, he served as Secretary, Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance.
• He has extensive state and central experience in finance and taxation and was Chairman and Managing Director of Rural Electrification Corporation Limited.
• He served on the RBI Central Board as a government nominee director from 16 February 2022 to 14 November 2022.
• He also served as the ex-officio Secretary to the GST Council.
• His appointment comes as the RBI faces challenges such as inflation control and slowing economic growth.

About Outgoing Governor Shaktikanta Das

• Shaktikanta Das, aged 68, was born on 26 February 1957 in Bhubaneswar.
• He studied at Demonstration Multipurpose School, Bhubaneswar, and later earned BA and MA degrees in History from St. Stephen's College, University of Delhi.
• He completed executive programmes at IIM Bangalore and the National Institute of Bank Management, Pune.
• Das joined the IAS in 1980 (Tamil Nadu cadre) and held roles such as Commissioner of Commercial Taxes and Principal Secretary of Industries.
• He served as Joint Secretary, Ministry of Finance, and was involved in drafting eight Union Budgets.
• In May 2017, he became Economic Affairs Secretary and was associated with the 2016 demonetisation decision as part of the finance ministry leadership.
• After retiring from the IAS, he joined the Fifteenth Finance Commission and served as India's Sherpa to the G20.
• He was appointed RBI Governor in December 2018 and had his term extended for three more years in December 2021.

Reserve Bank of India: Governance

• The RBI is India's central bank and regulator of the banking system; it was established on 1 April 1935 under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
• The central office moved from Kolkata to Mumbai in 1937; the RBI was nationalised in 1949.
• The central board of directors governs the RBI and is appointed by the Government of India for four-year terms.
• Board composition includes official directors (Governor and up to four Deputy Governors), nominated non-official directors, and representatives from local boards.
• As of the appointment, Sanjay Malhotra is Governor; Dr M.D. Patra, M. Rajeshwar Rao, T. Rabi Sankar and Swaminathan J are the four Deputy Governors.

Demise of Ustad Zakir Hussain

• Renowned tabla maestro Ustad Zakir Hussain passed away on 15 December in a San Francisco hospital.
• His death resulted from complications of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Who Was Zakir Hussain?

• Zakir Hussain, aged 73, was an internationally acclaimed tabla player, composer, percussionist, music producer and film actor.
• Born in 1951 in Mahim, Mumbai, he was the eldest son of Ustad Alla Rakha Qureshi.
• He began performing at age 7 and, by 12, accompanied maestros like Pandit Ravi Shankar and Ustad Ali Akbar Khan.
• By 18, he had earned international recognition for his solo performances.
• He married Antonia Minnecola, a Kathak dancer who also managed him.
• Hussain collaborated with George Harrison, Charles Lloyd, Yo-Yo Ma and many others.
• In 1973, he co-founded Shakti with John McLaughlin to fuse Indian classical music with jazz and Western traditions.
• Shakti's first studio album in 46 years, This Moment, won the Grammy for Best Global Music Album in 2024.
• He worked with Planet Drum and Global Drum Project with Mickey Hart; Planet Drum won the 1992 Grammy for Best World Music Album.
• He appeared in documentaries such as Zakir and His Friends (1998) and The Speaking Hand (2003), and acted in the Merchant Ivory film Heat and Dust (1983).
• Zakir was a founding member of Tabla Beat Science and the subject of the 2018 book Zakir Hussain: A Life in Music by Nasreen Munni Kabir.

Achievements

• He received the US National Endowment for the Arts National Heritage Fellowship in 1999.
• National honours: Padma Shri (1988), Padma Bhushan (2002) and Padma Vibhushan (2023).
• Sangeet Natak Akademi Award (1990), Kalidas Samman (2006) and the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship (2019 for the year 2018).
• He won three Grammy Awards on 4 February 2024 for albums Pashto, As We Speak and This Moment.
• He received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the San Francisco Jazz Center in 2017 and was named Best World Music and Best World Beat Drummer in readers' polls.
• Mumbai University conferred an honorary Doctor of Law (LLD) in 2022.

Amendment to Conduct of Election Rules, 1961

• The Congress challenged amendments to the Conduct of Election Rules that restrict public access to certain election records.
• All India Congress Committee Secretary Jairam Ramesh approached the Supreme Court against the change that reduces public access to CCTV footage from polling booths and candidate videos.

Background

• The Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, implement the Representation of People Act, 1951, and provide detailed procedures for nominations, polling, counting and results.
• The rules protect voter secrecy and election integrity.
• The Representation of People Act, 1951, also addresses corrupt practices and disputes related to elections; it was introduced by Dr B.R. Ambedkar.

The Amendment

• On 20 December, the Centre amended the Conduct of Election Rules to limit public access to some poll documents, following an Election Commission recommendation.
• Earlier, Rule 93(2)(a) stated that "all other papers relating to the election shall be open to public inspection."
• After amendment, it reads: "all other papers as specified in these rules relating to the election shall be open to public inspection."
• Before the change, CCTV footage and video recordings were available for public inspection without exception.
• Candidates retain access to all election records, including electronic material, to verify the election process.
• Materials restricted by the amendment can still be obtained through judicial intervention in specific cases.
• The Election Commission justifies restrictions by citing possible repercussions in sensitive regions such as Jammu & Kashmir and naxal-affected areas.

Death of Dr Manmohan Singh

• Dr Manmohan Singh, two-time prime minister and a key architect of the 1991 economic reforms, passed away at age 92.
• The hospital announced his death shortly after his admission to AIIMS Delhi in critical condition.
• National mourning for seven days was declared from 26 December to 1 January.

Who Was Manmohan Singh?

• Dr Singh was India's 13th Prime Minister.
• Born on 26 September 1932 in undivided Punjab, he earned a doctorate from Oxford.
• He joined the government as an economic advisor in 1971 and became Chief Economic Advisor in 1972.
• He held key roles including Secretary, Ministry of Finance; Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission; Governor, RBI; Advisor to the Prime Minister; and Chairman, UGC.
• He served briefly at the UNCTAD Secretariat (1966-69) and as Secretary General of the South Commission (1987-90).
• From 1991 to 1996, he was India's 22nd Finance Minister and led liberalisation measures that opened the economy.
• In 2004, Sonia Gandhi nominated him to lead the Congress, and he served as Prime Minister from 2004 and again after the 2009 election.
• Under his leadership, India averaged 7.7% economic growth for a decade.
• His tenure faced controversies such as the 2G spectrum and Commonwealth Games scandals, though he personally remained untainted.
• He retired from the Rajya Sabha on 8 February 2024.
• His early scholarly work includes India's Export Trends and Prospects for Self-Sustained Growth (1964).

Key Reforms and Policies

• As Finance Minister in 1991, Singh led structural reforms to dismantle the licence raj, reduce tariffs and open India to foreign investment.
• Major measures included the New Industrial Policy, repeal of the MRTP Act, capital market reforms and allowing foreign institutional investors.
• He championed legislation such as the RTI Act (2005), MNREGA (2006) and the Right to Education Act (2009).
• His government also introduced the National Food Security Act (2013) and supported committees addressing minority backwardness.

State Funeral And Memorials

• Dr Singh was accorded a state funeral on 28 December and cremated at Nigam Bodh Ghat, New Delhi, in the presence of senior leaders.
• In a state funeral, the body may be draped in the national flag and ceremonial arrangements follow government guidelines.
• National mourning involves flying the national flag at half-mast and suspending official entertainments.
• There are no fixed rules for allocating memorial space for former prime ministers; most former PMs have memorials maintained by state governments or local bodies.

Sword of Honour for Ram Mandir Project

• The Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra Trust's construction project received the British Safety Council's 'Sword of Honour' for safety management practices.
• Nripendra Misra, chair of the Trust's Construction Committee, announced the award on 15 December 2024.

About the Ram Mandir

• The Ram Mandir in Ayodhya was inaugurated on 22 January 2024 at the believed birthplace of Lord Ram, on the site where the Babri Masjid stood until 1992.
• The trust oversees a 70-acre complex; the main temple covers 2.7 acres and is built in the Nagara style.
• The temple is 161 ft tall, 360 ft long and 235 ft wide with five mandapas and an octagonal shikhara.
• Pink sandstone from Bansi Paharpur and Makrana marble are used; no iron or steel was employed in construction to ensure long-term durability.
• The complex features green spaces, temples to several deities, an accessible design and earthquake resistance.

The Sword of Honour Award

• The Sword of Honour recognises excellence in health, safety and environmental management and is awarded by the British Safety Council.
• Eligibility requires a five-star rating in the British Safety Council audit, demonstration of excellence to an independent panel, and no ongoing criminal investigations related to health and safety.
• The Five Star Rating involves a quantified audit against best practices; organisations must score 92% or above to receive it.
• The award is presented annually at a luncheon in Drapers' Hall, London.
• Larsen & Toubro (L&T) and Tata Consulting Engineers were also associated with project safety and engineering quality.

Ajmer Dargah Row

• A civil court in Ajmer admitted a petition seeking a survey of Ajmer Sharif Dargah, alleging the shrine was constructed after demolishing Hindu and Jain temples.
• The petition requests an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) survey and cancellation of any official registration of the dargah.

Historical Background

• Ajmer (formerly Ajaymeru) was founded by the Chauhans in the mid-12th century and later sacked by Muhammad of Ghor after the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192.
• Historian Har Bilas Sarda documented that idols and temple foundations were destroyed in the Ghurid conquest; his 1911 book is cited in the petition.
• The city revived under Mughal emperor Akbar (1556-1605).
• The mausoleum of Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti was built in the second half of the 15th century and expanded under later rulers such as Humayun and Akbar.

About the Dargah And Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti

• The Ajmer Sharif Dargah enshrines the Sufi saint Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti, who arrived in Ajmer in the late 12th century and died in 1236.
• The Chishti order emphasises tolerance and inclusivity and drew from local practices while developing Sufi traditions.
• Akbar and later Mughal emperors expanded the shrine and patronised the complex.

The Petition And Legal Context

• The petition filed in September seeks directions to permit Shiva worship at the shrine, claiming a prior Shiva temple stood there.
• The civil court issued notices on 27 November to the dargah committee, Ministry of Minority Affairs and the ASI.
• The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991, preserves the religious character of places of worship as of 15 August 1947, except the Babri Masjid.
• In 2023, the Supreme Court allowed surveys to ascertain religious character of places of worship, a precedent cited in related petitions.

Archaeological Survey of India

• ASI, under the Ministry of Culture, oversees archaeological research and monument conservation; founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham.
• ASI regulates activities under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 and the Antiquities and Art Treasure Act, 1972.
• Kishore K Basa is the Director General of ASI.

Ken-Betwa River Linking Project (KBLP)

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone for the Ken-Betwa River Linking Project at Chhatarpur, Madhya Pradesh, coinciding with the birth centenary of Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
• The project will transfer surplus water from the Ken river to the Betwa river.

National Perspective And Background

• The idea of interlinking rivers in India dates to proposals from the 1970s and the National Perspective Plan (NPP) was formulated in 1980.
• The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) is responsible for interlinking river work under the NPP.
• The NPP has two components: Himalayan Rivers Development and Peninsular Rivers Development; the peninsular component includes the Ken-Chambal interlinking.

Project Details

• The Ken-Betwa Link Canal will be 221 km long and include a 2 km tunnel.
• The project aims to irrigate 10.62 lakh hectares annually (8.11 lakh ha in Madhya Pradesh and 2.51 lakh ha in Uttar Pradesh).
• It will supply drinking water to about 62 lakh people and generate 103 MW hydropower plus 27 MW solar power.
• The Union Cabinet approved funding of Rs 44,605 crore (at 2020-21 prices) in December 2021.
• KBLP is divided into Phase I (Daudhan Dam, tunnels, canal and powerhouses) and Phase II (Lower Orr Dam, Bina Complex, Kotha Barrage).
• Daudhan Dam will be 2,031 metres long and 77 metres high, and will submerge about 9,000 hectares affecting 10 villages.
• The contract for Daudhan Dam was awarded to NCC Ltd and the project agreement was signed on 22 March 2021 between the Jal Shakti Ministry and the governments of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
• The project is targeted for completion within eight years and is expected to benefit the Bundelkhand region across 13 districts.

History And Approvals

• NWDA proposed KBLP in 1982 and conducted feasibility studies in 1995.
• MoUs for DPR preparation were signed in 2005; DPRs for phases completed in 2010 and 2014.
• The project gained renewed momentum in 2021 with state and central agreements and Union Cabinet approval in December 2021.

Environmental And Social Concerns

• The project will lead to deforestation of about 98 sq km of Panna National Park and felling of around 2-3 million trees.
• Daudhan Dam may affect tiger reintroduction success in Panna and threaten gharials and vulture nesting sites.
• IIT Bombay researchers warned the project could reduce September rainfall by up to 12%, affecting land-atmosphere feedback.
• Transparency in hydrological data for the Ken River is being urged for a proper environmental review.
• The dam will displace 5,228 families in Chhatarpur district and 1,400 families in Panna district; protests cite inadequate compensation and limited local benefits.

International Current Affairs: Dinga Dinga Virus

• A mysterious illness nicknamed "Dinga Dinga" or "dancing virus" emerged in Uganda's Bundibugyo district, prompting concern among locals and health professionals.
• The first cases were reported in a small rural town and the illness spread rapidly.

What Is Dinga Dinga?

• The local name "dinga" means "shaking like dancing," referring to involuntary rhythmic shaking of patients' bodies.
• Authorities classify it as a viral infection, but the exact pathogen is unknown.
• Women and girls have been mostly affected, with severe tremors sometimes making walking impossible.
• No deaths have been reported; most patients recover within a week with treatment.
• Antibiotics have been used and shown promising results clinically.

Symptoms

• Fever.
• Severe, persistent headaches.
• Cough and runny nose.
• Widespread body pain impairing movement.
• Excessive involuntary shaking that can cause temporary paralysis; episodes may last hours.

Cause And Historical Comparison

• The precise cause remains unknown; theories include viral infection or environmental factors.
• Experts compared the symptoms to the 1518 "Dancing Plague" in Strasbourg, where uncontrollable dancing afflicted many people.
• The historic dancing plague had theories ranging from ergot poisoning to mass psychogenic illness.

US-China Science and Technology Agreement Renewal

• The United States and China signed a protocol to amend and extend their bilateral Science and Technology Agreement for five years, effective retroactively from 27 August.
• The agreement was signed in Beijing and observers generally welcomed the renewal; the incoming US administration is likely to support continuation.

What Are Bilateral S&T Agreements?

• These pacts promote scientific and technological cooperation between two countries and often include specific cooperation agreements within broader engagement frameworks.
• They enable cooperation beyond state institutions and often pave the way for researcher exchanges and joint projects.
• India has S&T agreements with 83 countries, coordinated by the International Cooperation Division of the Department of Science & Technology.

About the US-China Agreement

• The original Science and Technology Agreement was signed in 1979 when the two countries normalised relations.
• It facilitates cooperation in areas including agriculture, energy, space, health, environment, earth sciences and education.
• The US-PRC Joint Commission on Scientific and Technological Cooperation governs the Agreement.
• Over time, the Agreement expanded to about 40 sub-agreements across various fields.

Features of the Recent Amendment

• The amended instrument narrows the Agreement's scope to intergovernmental cooperation, basic research, and previously identified mutually beneficial themes.
• Cooperation in critical and emerging technologies is excluded to allay concerns about disproportionate benefits and security risks.
• Intellectual property protections and new guardrails for researcher safety and security are sustained.
• Proposed collaborations will undergo a broader interagency review led by the White House.
• A dispute resolution mechanism and a termination clause exist to cancel projects in cases of bad faith.

China's CR450 High-Speed Train

• China unveiled a CR450 high-speed train prototype that has undergone extensive testing and prototype trials.
• The manufacturer claims it may set a global record as the world's fastest high-speed train.

High-Speed Railway Systems

• There is no single definition, but rail systems designed for speeds above 250 km/h are generally called high-speed.
• China has the world's longest high-speed rail network (about 47,000 km).
• Japan, Spain, France and Germany also have extensive high-speed networks.
• India does not yet have a full high-speed network; the Mumbai-Ahmedabad high-speed corridor is under construction.

About the CR450

• The CR450 prototype reached test speeds up to 450 km/h and is designed for an operational speed of 400 km/h.
• Development began in 2018 with the goal of commercial operation at 400 km/h.
• The CR450 aims to surpass the CR400 model, which operates at 350 km/h.
• Two prototypes, CR450AF and CR450BF, feature eight cars with four powered and four non-powered carriages.
• Compared with predecessors, the CR450 reduces operational resistance by 22% and weight by 10%, improving energy efficiency.
• Interior noise is reduced by about 2 decibels and cabin space is increased by 4%.

China's High-Speed Rail Network

• China's first intercity high-speed line opened in 2008 between Beijing and Tianjin with designed speeds of 350 km/h.
• Since then, China has developed an advanced HSR technology system exemplified by the Fuxing EMU.
• Chinese high-speed rail technology has been exported, for example to Indonesia (Jakarta-Bandung) and Serbia (Belgrade-Novi Sad).
• The UIC World Congress on High-Speed Rail convenes every two to three years; the 12th congress will be in Beijing in July 2025.

Birthright Citizenship Debate in the United States

• US President-elect Donald Trump has pledged to eliminate birthright citizenship upon taking office as part of immigration restrictions.
• He and supporters argue the policy is being abused and that tougher citizenship criteria are needed.

What Is Birthright Citizenship?

• Birthright citizenship grants automatic US citizenship to anyone born in the United States and its territories, subject to some exemptions.
• Exemptions include children of foreign diplomats and members of sovereign Native American tribes.
• The 14th Amendment, ratified in July 1868, guarantees that "All persons born or naturalised in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States."
• United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898) was a landmark Supreme Court case affirming birthright citizenship for a US-born child of Chinese immigrants.

How Could the Law Change?

• An executive order has been proposed by President-elect Trump to require at least one parent to be a US citizen or lawful permanent resident for automatic citizenship.
• Legal experts say birthright citizenship is constitutional and cannot be ended by executive order alone.
• A constitutional amendment would be required, needing two-thirds majorities in both Houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of state legislatures.
• Currently, Republicans lack the required two-thirds majority in either chamber.

Other Routes to US Citizenship

• Citizenship through acquisition covers children born abroad to US citizens under specified residency conditions.
• Citizenship by naturalisation generally requires applicants to be 18 and meet residency or military service requirements.
• Citizenship through derivation may occur automatically when a parent naturalises and the child meets age and residency criteria.
• Form N-600 is used to obtain official documentation that a person acquired US citizenship through these methods.

Citizenship in India

• Indian citizenship is governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955, which sets out methods and rules for acquiring, retaining and renouncing citizenship.
• There are five primary modes of acquiring citizenship in India.

Citizenship by Birth (Section 3)

• Persons born in India between 26 January 1950 and 1 July 1987 are Indian citizens by birth, regardless of parents' nationality.
• Persons born on or after 1 July 1987 are citizens by birth if either parent is an Indian citizen at the time of birth.
• Foundlings with unknown parentage are considered Indian citizens by birth.

Citizenship by Registration (Section 5)

• Criteria include ordinary residence in India for at least seven years prior to application, marriage to an Indian citizen, or being a minor child of Indian citizens.
• Overseas Citizens of India and persons of Indian origin may also be eligible for registration under specified conditions.

Citizenship by Descent (Section 4)

• Persons born abroad between 26 January 1950 and 10 December 1992 become citizens if their father was an Indian citizen at birth.
• For births on or after 10 December 1992, citizenship by descent applies if either parent was an Indian citizen at the child's birth.

Citizenship by Naturalisation (Section 6)

• Applicants generally must have resided in India for at least 12 years continuously prior to application and meet other residency criteria within the preceding 20 years.

Citizenship by Incorporation of Territory (Section 7)

• When a territory becomes part of India, persons born or resident there for a specified period may acquire Indian citizenship by incorporation of territory.

UN Champions of the Earth Award 2024

• UNEP announced the 2024 Champions of the Earth laureates, recognising six individuals for environmental leadership.
• Champions of the Earth is UNEP's highest environmental honour, established in 2005.

Award Categories And Purpose

• Categories include policy leadership, inspiration and action, entrepreneurial vision, science and innovation and lifetime achievement.
• The programme recognises innovative, sustainable solutions addressing climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution.
• No large cash prize is conferred; winners receive $15,000 of financial support and global recognition.
• A Young Champions of the Earth prize (for ages 18-30) was added in 2017.

Selected 2024 Awardees

• Lifetime achievement: Madhav Gadgil - Indian environmentalist known for the Gadgil Report on the Western Ghats and founding the Centre for Ecological Sciences at IISc.
• Policy leadership: Sonia Guajajara - Brazil's indigenous minister and advocate for Indigenous rights and territory recognition.
• Inspiration and action: Gabriel Paun - Romanian defender of old-growth forests and founder of Agent Green.
• Inspiration and action: Amy Bowers Cordalis - Yurok Tribe attorney who helped restore the Klamath River by removing four hydroelectric dams.
• Entrepreneurial vision: SEKEM - Egyptian sustainable development organisation founded by Ibrahim Abouleish addressing desertification and resilient food systems.
• Science and innovation: Lu Qi - Chief Scientist at the Chinese Academy of Forestry, leading desertification mitigation and drought-resistant afforestation work.

About UNEP

• The United Nations Environment Programme coordinates global environmental responses within the UN system and supports the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.
• Formed after the 1972 Stockholm Conference, UNEP's governing body is the United Nations Environment Assembly, meeting biennially.
• UNEP is headquartered in Nairobi; Inger Andersen is the Executive Director.
• UNEP has an office in New Delhi since 2016 and India's Permanent Representative to UNEP is the High Commissioner to Kenya.

Swiss Suspension of India's Most Favoured Nation Status in DTAA

• Switzerland suspended the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) clause in the India-Switzerland Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA).
• The suspension may affect Swiss investments in India and increase taxes for Indian entities operating in Switzerland.

Most Favoured Nation Principle

• MFN grants a country the most favourable trade or tax treatment offered to any other country under a treaty.
• Under MFN, if a country gives a 5% tariff or concessional tax rate to one partner, it must extend the same to other MFN partners unless exceptions apply.
• MFN is a cornerstone of WTO law, ensuring non-discriminatory treatment among member countries.

Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA)

• DTAA treaties prevent the same income from being taxed twice in two jurisdictions and promote cross-border investment and trade.
• India has DTAAs with 88 countries; provisions typically cover types of income like services, salary, property and capital gains.
• Relief under DTAA can be by exemption or by tax credit; Sections 90 and 91 of the Income Tax Act, 1961, provide relief mechanisms.

Events Leading to the Suspension

• The India-Switzerland DTAA was signed on 2 November 1994 and revised in 2000 and 2010; it included an MFN clause.
• Following a 19 October 2023 Supreme Court ruling, India clarified that MFN benefits do not automatically apply retroactively without proper notification under Section 90 of the Income Tax Act.
• Switzerland had interpreted MFN to reduce dividend withholding from 10% to 5% retroactively from 5 July 2018, citing treaties India signed with Colombia and Lithuania after they joined the OECD.
• The Indian Supreme Court ruling rebutted automatic retroactivity and limited MFN application without notification; this led Switzerland to suspend the MFN clause.
• From 1 January 2025, Switzerland will apply a 10% tax on dividends to Indian tax residents, replacing the 5% rate it had claimed.

Impact

• The suspension raises dividend withholding rates for Indian entities in Switzerland from 5% to 10% and may increase tax liabilities for Indian firms operating via Swiss structures.
• Swiss investors may reassess investments in India due to reduced tax advantages.
• Concerns exist about effects on Overseas Direct Investment structures in Switzerland and broader investment flows under EFTA arrangements.

EFTA

• India exported goods worth $1 billion to the EFTA bloc in April-September FY25, while imports were $10.7 billion.
• India has recently signed the Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) with EFTA members: Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein.
• The agreement commits EFTA countries to invest $100 billion and to create one million direct jobs in India over the next 15 years.
• EFTA nations pledged $50 billion in investments in the first 10 years and a further $50 billion in the subsequent five years.
• If EFTA nations do not meet these investment targets, India may adopt remedial steps, including partial withdrawal of tariff concessions under TEPA.
• India agreed to reduce tariffs to zero on 80-85% of goods from EFTA countries and to provide duty-free access for 99% of goods, including rice.
• India refused tariff cuts on key Swiss imports such as gold, jewellery, dairy products, cheese, and automobiles.
• About 82% of India's imports from EFTA countries, mainly from Switzerland, consist of gold.
• Trade experts view Switzerland's stance as highlighting broader concerns about India's handling of Most Favoured Nation (MFN) clauses in bilateral treaties, prompting careful reassessment.

India - Switzerland Relationship

• The Treaty of Friendship between India and Switzerland was signed on 14 August 1948 in New Delhi, making it one of independent India's earliest treaties.
• 2023 marked the 75th anniversary of the Indo-Swiss Friendship Treaty.
• Relations strengthened through several high-level visits.
• Notable visits include:
  • The President of India visited Switzerland in September 2019.
  • Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Switzerland in 2016 and 2018.
  • Swiss President Doris Leuthard visited India in August-September 2017.
• India's diplomatic presence in Switzerland comprises:
  • An Embassy in Berne.
  • A Consulate General in Geneva.
• Between 1971 and 1976, Switzerland represented India's interests in Pakistan during and after Bangladesh's struggle for independence.
• Commercial ties date to the early 19th century when Volkart Trading Co. opened offices in Basel and Mumbai in 1851.
• In 1915, during World War I, Switzerland expanded its consular presence, including in Mumbai, to safeguard food and economic interests.
• The Integral Coach Factory (ICF) in Chennai was established following a 1949 agreement between the Government of India and Swiss Cars and Elevators Manufacturing Ltd., Zurich.
  • ICF celebrated its diamond jubilee in September 2015.
• The 1948 Indo-Swiss Treaty of Friendship laid the basis for economic cooperation and provided Switzerland with MFN treatment in Articles 3-6.
• Subsequent treaties derived from the Friendship Treaty include:
  • A Double Taxation Treaty signed in November 1994.
  • An Amendment Protocol signed in 2010.
  • A Promotion and Protection of Investment Treaty signed in July 1997.

Paris Agreement

• The Paris Agreement was finalised on 12 December 2015 to combat climate change.
• Over nine years, its effectiveness in reducing emissions and addressing the worsening climate crisis appears limited.
• Global temperatures and extreme weather events continue to rise, signalling limited progress.

What Is the Paris Agreement?

• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change.
• It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP21 in Paris on 12 December 2015.
• The treaty entered into force on 4 November 2016.
• Its main objective is to keep the global average temperature rise well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
• The Agreement also urges efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
• Recent emphasis has been on limiting global warming to 1.5°C by century end.
• The IPCC warns that exceeding 1.5°C would cause severe climate impacts.
• These impacts include more frequent and intense droughts, heatwaves, and extreme rainfall.
• To meet the 1.5°C target, global greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025.
• Emissions must fall by 43% by 2030 to stay on that path.
• The Paris Agreement marked a shift in multilateral climate action by uniting nations to address climate change.
• It promotes cooperation on mitigation, adaptation, and resilience.
• The treaty stresses shared but differentiated responsibilities according to national capabilities.
• It also sets up mechanisms for monitoring and reporting national climate plans.
• Despite its landmark nature, the Agreement faces challenges in meeting its ambitious targets amid rising climate impacts.

Working

• Implementing the Paris Agreement requires economic and social transformation guided by the best available science.
• The Agreement uses a five-year cycle of progressively stronger climate action, often called a ratchet mechanism.
• Since 2020, countries have submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) outlining their climate actions.
• NDCs contain measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to achieve the Agreement's goals.
• Each new NDC should demonstrate greater ambition than the previous one.
• COP27 urged Parties to revisit and strengthen their 2030 NDC targets by the end of 2023 to align with the temperature goals.
• The Agreement encourages submission of Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategies (LT-LEDS).
• About LT-LEDS:
  • They give a long-term perspective to NDCs and align climate action with development priorities.
  • Unlike NDCs, LT-LEDS are voluntary but provide strategic direction for future policies.
• NDCs and LT-LEDS together frame national climate strategies within broader development goals.
• More countries, regions, cities, and companies are setting carbon neutrality targets.
• Zero-carbon solutions are becoming competitive in sectors that represent 25% of emissions, especially power and transport.

Progress Tracking

• The Paris Agreement established an Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF) for climate action.
• From 2024, countries will report transparently on mitigation, adaptation, and support provided or received.
• The ETF includes international procedures to review submitted reports.
• Information from the ETF will feed into the Global Stocktake, which assesses collective progress toward long-term goals.
• The Global Stocktake will produce recommendations to increase ambition in the next submission round.

Current Scenario

• In nine years since the Paris Agreement, global emissions rose by 8%, from 49 billion tonnes to 53 billion tonnes.
• Average global temperatures increased from 1.1°C to 1.45°C above pre-industrial levels.
• 2024 is forecast to be the first year to exceed the 1.5°C threshold.
• The 1.5°C target now appears more difficult to achieve.
• The Kyoto Protocol (1997) earlier placed the primary responsibility on developed countries, with developing states contributing as per their capabilities.
• Developed countries, concerned about economic constraints and China's rise, sought to dismantle Kyoto-style obligations and reshaped the framework at Paris in 2015.
• The Paris Agreement shifted to "nationally determined" contributions, allowing countries to set their own emission targets.
• This shift reduced mandatory commitments for developed countries compared with Kyoto.
• Consequently, global action lacks alignment with the emission reductions needed to control warming.
• Developing countries require trillions of dollars annually for climate action, but finance remains inadequate.
• The expected return of Donald Trump to power could lead to another U.S. exit from the Paris Agreement.
• Trust in the Agreement is weakening, especially among nations most vulnerable to climate impacts.
• Vanuatu led similar nations to seek an ICJ advisory opinion on states' climate obligations under various international laws.
• The ICJ was asked to examine climate duties under the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, and other legal instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• Finance shortfalls highlight the gap between developed-country promises and the practical needs of developing countries.
• The funding deficit undermines developing countries' ability to adopt ambitious climate measures.
• Many countries now view the Paris Agreement as failing to deliver on finance and accountability promises.

Syrian Civil War

• Recently, after nearly 15 years of civil war, President Bashar al-Assad was overthrown following rapid rebel advances.
• On 8 December, rebel forces took control of the capital, Damascus.
• Bashar al-Assad reportedly fled to an undisclosed location.

Syria - Country Overview

• Syria lies on the eastern Mediterranean coast of southwestern Asia and includes the Golan Heights, occupied by Israel since 1967.
• Damascus, the capital, sits on the Barada River in an oasis at the foot of Mount Qasioun.
• Syria gained independence in 1946 but experienced political instability from social, religious, and political tensions.
• In 1970, Hafez al-Assad established authoritarian rule focused on security, stability, and recovering territory lost to Israel.
• Hafez al-Assad's large arms buildup strained Syria's budget and limited development spending.
• The Assad family belongs to the Alawite minority, about 10% of the population, which has dominated politics since the 1960s.
• After Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar became president and initially pursued reforms.
• The constitution was amended to lower the minimum presidential age from 40 to 34, allowing Bashar to assume office.
• Bashar al-Assad later reverted to authoritarian measures, suppressing dissent and triggering the 2011 civil war.
• Years of conflict and destruction ended in December 2024 with Bashar al-Assad's deposition.

Syria's Civil War - Timeline and Dynamics

• Inspired by the Arab Spring, protests for political freedom erupted across the Arab world in early 2011.
• On 15 March 2011, arrests and torture of teenagers in Daraa for anti-government graffiti sparked nationwide outrage.
• Protests spread across Syria demanding reforms, greater freedoms, and release of political prisoners; they began peacefully.
• The Assad regime responded with violent crackdowns, deploying security forces and using live ammunition.
• On 22 April 2011, security forces fired on unarmed protesters in Daraa, causing further deaths and anger.
• By mid-2011, military defectors and opposition groups formed the Free Syrian Army (FSA), beginning armed rebellion.
• The Syrian military escalated operations, including heavy bombardment of cities such as Homs and Daraa.
• The international community condemned the violence, but there was no immediate intervention to halt it.
• UN-led peace attempts, including Kofi Annan's special envoy role, failed to stop the fighting.
• In August 2013, the regime was accused of a chemical attack on Ghouta, killing hundreds and prompting international outrage.
• The U.S. threatened military action after Ghouta, but an agreement with Russia led to removal of Syria's declared chemical stockpile.
• Jihadist groups, including ISIS, gained ground and added a brutal dimension to the conflict.
• In 2014, ISIS declared a caliphate across parts of Syria and Iraq and committed widespread atrocities.
• Iran and Hezbollah backed the Syrian government militarily, while the U.S., Turkey, and Gulf states supported various rebel factions.
• Russia intervened militarily in September 2015, shifting momentum toward the Assad government.
• The government, backed by Russia, besieged Aleppo, which fell in December 2016-a major turning point.
• The war caused a massive refugee crisis, with millions fleeing to neighbouring countries and Europe.
• The U.S. supported the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), while Turkey opposed them due to links with Kurdish separatists.
• In 2017, the US-led coalition and SDF captured Raqqa, the de facto ISIS capital, marking a key defeat for the group.
• By 2019, ISIS had lost most territory but continued insurgent activity.
• Turkey launched a northern Syria offensive in October 2019 targeting Kurdish forces, displacing many civilians.
• By 2019, the Assad regime had largely defeated organised opposition, though sporadic fighting and displacement continued.
• In 2020, the government regained Idlib, the final large rebel-held province, after heavy airstrikes.
• By 2021, the conflict had caused over 500,000 deaths and left millions displaced or injured.
• Despite regime victory, Syria remains divided and faces a long reconstruction and peace process with continued foreign influence.

Recent Development

• As Iran, Hezbollah, and Russia became preoccupied with conflicts in Gaza, Lebanon, and Ukraine, Assad lost crucial external support.
• With external backers distracted, rebel forces made major advances against the Syrian Army.
• Rebels captured Damascus with little resistance, marking a decisive turning point in the war.
• President Bashar al-Assad fled to Russia, ending decades of family rule amid a long civil war.
• The fall of Assad represented a major shift in Middle East geopolitics and reduced Iran's and Russia's foothold in the Arab world.
• Russia granted asylum to Assad and his family after the overthrow, changing regional dynamics.
• The revolt, partly backed by Turkey and driven by Sunni jihadist elements, curtailed Iran's regional arms supply routes.
• Assad's collapse threatened Russia's Mediterranean naval base and other strategic assets.
• The regime's fall could prompt millions of refugees in Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan to consider returning to Syria.
• The overthrow abruptly ended a conflict that had otherwise been frozen for years with devastating consequences.

India - Syria Relationship

• On 9 December 2024, India called for a peaceful and inclusive political process in Syria after Assad fled to Russia and rebels took Damascus.
• These sudden events surprised India, which had recently held Foreign Office Consultations with Syrian officials.
• Assad's fall ended five decades of family rule; India historically maintained close ties with the regime.
• Both India and Syria were non-aligned; Syria supported India's position on Jammu and Kashmir as an internal matter.
• In 2008, Bashar al-Assad visited India, leading to agreements on a power project at Tishreen and modernization of Hama steel plant.
• India joined a 2016 investment in Syrian energy through a joint venture with China's CNPC Al Furat Petroleum Company (AFPC).
• Due to rising resistance against Assad and human rights concerns, India paused many operations in Syria.
• The rise of militant Islamist groups since 2011 further reduced India's engagement in Syria.
• India's trade with Syria fell sharply to about $100 million in the last year.
• India's relations with Syria are now more complex because of shifting regional power dynamics.