UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2025: Geography Paper 2 (Section- A)

Q. 1.(a) On the outline map of India provided to you, mark the location of all of the following. Write in your QCA Booklet the significance of these locations, whether physical/commercial/economic/ecological/environmental/cultural, in not more than 30 words for each entry : 2×10=20 
(i) Rushikulya River 
(ii) Datar Hill 
(iii) Kikruma 
(iv) Choritand Tillaya 
(v) Byalalu (vi) Neyyar 
(vii) Uttarlai 
(viii) Sri Vijayapuram 
(ix) Dharwas 
(x) Gitabitan
Ans: 

• (i) Rushikulya River: Located in Odisha, flowing through Kandhamal and Ganjam districts. Ecological significance as major rookery for mass nesting of endangered Olive Ridley sea turtles.
• (ii) Datar Hill: Situated in Junagadh district, Gujarat. Cultural and religious importance as a pilgrimage site with Sufi shrine of Jamiyal Shah Datar, revered by Hindus and Muslims. 
• (iii) Kikruma: Village in Phek district, Nagaland. Ecological and environmental significance for pioneering Zabo farming system, integrating forestry, agriculture, animal husbandry, and sustainable water management. 
• (iv) Choritand Tillaya: Located in Koderma district, Jharkhand. Economic importance as site of Tilaiya Dam for irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, and flood control; also a coal mining block. 
• (v) Byalalu: Village near Bengaluru, Karnataka. Scientific and economic significance as home to ISRO's Indian Deep Space Network antenna for tracking space missions. 
• (vi) Neyyar: River and dam in Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala. Ecological and environmental importance with Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, supporting biodiversity, irrigation, and tourism.
• (vii) Uttarlai: Village in Barmer district, Rajasthan. Strategic military significance as Indian Air Force station, crucial for air defense along western frontier. 
• (viii) Sri Vijayapuram: Capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (formerly Port Blair). Administrative and historical significance as gateway to islands, key in India's freedom struggle. 
• (ix) Dharwas: Likely referring to Dharwad, city in Karnataka. Cultural and economic hub known for educational institutions, classical music, and agricultural trade. 
• (x) Gitabitan: Near Santiniketan, Birbhum district, West Bengal. Cultural significance as proposed township promoting arts, heritage, and Rabindranath Tagore's musical legacy. 

(b) Referring to the location and physical formation of karewas, highlight their economic significance. 
Ans: Karewas are elevated, flat-topped terraces found mainly in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir, located between the Pir Panjal range in the south and the Great Himalayas in the north. They are prominent in districts such as Pulwama, Anantnag, Budgam, and Baramulla.

Physically, karewas are lacustrine deposits formed during the Pleistocene epoch. The valley was once a vast lake dammed by tectonic uplift. Fine silt and clay brought by rivers like the Jhelum settled at the lake bottom. Subsequent uplift and erosion drained the lake, leaving these plateau-like formations with gentle slopes and fertile loess soil.

Economically, karewas are highly significant:

• Their moisture-retentive soil supports dry farming and world-famous saffron cultivation (especially in Pampore).
• They form the base for Kashmir's horticulture industry-apples, almonds, walnuts, and cherries-contributing majorly to exports and livelihoods.
• The terraces also support vegetable and grain cultivation.

Thus, karewas are the agricultural lifeline of the valley. 

(c) How does Himalayan ecosystem regulate the cropping pattern and agricultural activities in Himalayan region of India? Discuss. 
Ans: The Himalayan ecosystem, with its steep altitudinal gradient, varied climate, fragile soils, and high biodiversity, directly shapes cropping patterns and agricultural practices in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR).

• Altitudinal zonation creates distinct agro-climatic zones: below 1,000 m (sub-tropical)-rice, maize, citrus; 1,000-2,000 m (temperate)-wheat, barley, stone fruits (apple, peach); above 2,000 m (sub-alpine/alpine)-potato, buckwheat, millets, and medicinal herbs.
• Orographic rainfall and snowmelt provide water but cause soil erosion, necessitating terrace farming, contour ploughing, and agroforestry.
• Steep slopes and thin soils promote integrated farming-crops with livestock and forestry for fodder and fuel.
• Seasonal migration (transhumance) and shifting cultivation (jhum) in eastern Himalayas adapt to short growing seasons.
• Biodiversity supports pollination and natural pest control.

However, climate change is shifting zones upward, affecting traditional patterns. Sustainable practices are essential to maintain productivity in this fragile ecosystem. 

(d) Write a critically argued essay on nautical tourism and its infrastructure in India. 
Ans: 

• Nautical tourism-encompassing cruise shipping, yachting, water sports, houseboats, and island tourism-offers India huge potential due to its 7,517 km coastline, Andaman & Nicobar, and Lakshadweep islands. It aligns with the blue economy vision.
• Positively, cruise tourism has grown rapidly. Ports like Mumbai, Goa, Kochi, Chennai, and Visakhapatnam now handle international vessels. Initiatives under Sagarmala, dedicated cruise terminals, and lighthouse tourism have boosted arrivals. River cruises on the Ganga and Brahmaputra (National Waterways) add diversity. This sector creates jobs, stimulates local crafts, and earns foreign exchange.
• Critically, infrastructure remains inadequate. India lacks modern marinas and yacht berths; cabotage restrictions hinder foreign vessels. Connectivity between ports and hinterland attractions is poor. Visa and security procedures deter passengers. Environmental risks-ship pollution, coral damage in islands, and coastal erosion-are rising with increasing footfall. Climate vulnerability of low-lying islands adds concern.
• For sustainable growth, India needs investment in green ports, eased regulations, skilled manpower, and eco-friendly guidelines. Only then can nautical tourism become a major economic driver. 

Q2: (a) Explain the factors which contribute to the growth of India's pharmaceutical industry with specific reference to its concentration in western region of India. 
Ans: India's pharmaceutical industry, often called the "pharmacy of the world", is the third-largest by volume globally. It supplies over 20% of generic medicines worldwide and contributes significantly to exports, reaching around $55-66 billion market size in 2025.

Key growth factors include:

• Cost advantage: Low manufacturing and labour costs, making generics affordable.
• Skilled workforce: Abundance of chemists, engineers, and English-speaking professionals from premier institutions.
• Policy support: The 1970 Patent Act allowed process patents, boosting reverse engineering. Recent initiatives like Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme and bulk drug parks promote self-reliance in APIs post-COVID.
• R&D capabilities and China+1 strategy attract global firms for supply chain diversification.
• Strong export orientation, with growth in formulations and biologics.

The industry shows marked concentration in the western region (Gujarat and Maharashtra):

• Gujarat leads with 30-35% of India's pharma production and 28-31% of exports, hosting clusters in Ahmedabad, Vadodara, and Ankleshwar. Reasons include proximity to petrochemical hubs for raw materials, major ports (Kandla, Mundra) for exports, state incentives, land availability, and robust chemical ecosystem.
• Maharashtra contributes 14-20% production and exports, centred in Mumbai-Pune-Aurangabad. Historical commercial hub status, Mumbai port, educational institutions, and industrial infrastructure drive this.

This western dominance stems from historical advantages, port access, and synergy with chemical industries, making the region a global pharma hub. Sustainable growth requires addressing environmental concerns and diversifying clusters. 

(b) Why are coral reefs in India most important with respect to its dynamic ecosystem? Explore. 
Ans: Coral reefs in India, found in Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands, cover about 2,300 sq km. They are vital biodiversity hotspots and dynamic ecosystems, constantly evolving through biological and physical interactions.

Their importance lies in:

• High biodiversity: Supporting over 25% of marine species, including fish, molluscs, and crustaceans, despite occupying less than 1% of ocean area. They act as nurseries for commercially important fish, sustaining fisheries for coastal communities.
• Coastal protection: Reefs dissipate wave energy, preventing erosion, storm surges, and tsunamis, safeguarding mangroves and seagrasses.
• Dynamic interactions: Built by calcium-secreting corals in symbiosis with zooxanthellae algae, reefs cycle nutrients, provide habitats, and maintain food webs. They support tourism, generating revenue and jobs.
• Climate regulation: Acting as carbon sinks and indicators of ocean health.

However, reefs are fragile and dynamic-sensitive to sea surface temperature rise, causing bleaching. The ongoing 2023-2025 global bleaching event, the fourth and most widespread, has impacted over 80% of world reefs, including Indian ones, leading to mortality and ecosystem shifts.

Conservation through marine protected areas, restoration projects, and reducing pollution is crucial to preserve these living, dynamic structures for ecological balance and human livelihoods. 

(c) How does the agricultural sector of India confront with the contemporary physical and politico-economic changes in the different regions of the country? Elucidate. 
Ans: India's agricultural sector, employing nearly 45% of the workforce, faces physical changes from climate change and politico-economic shifts from globalization and policy reforms, varying regionally.

Physical challenges include rising temperatures, erratic monsoons, droughts, floods, and pest infestations:

• In north-western region (Punjab-Haryana), groundwater depletion and soil salinity from intensive wheat-rice cycling, exacerbated by heatwaves.
• Southern region (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka) suffers recurrent droughts, affecting rainfed crops.
• Eastern region (Bihar, Assam) faces floods and cyclones, damaging paddy.
• Western arid zones experience water scarcity.

The sector confronts these through climate-resilient varieties, micro-irrigation (PMKSY), crop insurance (PMFBY), and diversification to millets/fruits.

Politico-economic changes involve trade liberalization, MSP demands, subsidy distortions, and market reforms:

• Fertilizer subsidies lead to nutrient imbalance nationwide.
• Farmer protests highlight distress over input costs and income stagnation.
• Regional variations: Northern states push for legal MSP guarantees; southern focus on plantation crops faces global price volatility; eastern lags in infrastructure.

Adaptations include contract farming, FPOs, digital platforms (e-NAM), and organic farming push. Despite resilience via schemes like PM-KISAN, challenges like low productivity, fragmentation, and extreme weather persist, threatening food security. Balanced policies integrating regional needs are essential for sustainable transformation. 

Q3: (a) Why is the pattern of population distribution of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes different in India? Compare their socio-economic problems with examples. 
Ans:

• The distribution patterns of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India differ markedly due to historical, social and geographical factors. As per the 2011 Census (still the primary reference), SCs constitute about 16.6-17% of the population, while STs form 8.6-9%. SCs are spread across rural plains and fertile agricultural regions, with higher concentrations in states like Punjab (31.9%), Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar. This pattern stems from their historical association with the caste system, untouchability and occupation-based roles as agricultural labourers in village societies.
• In contrast, STs are concentrated in hilly, forested and geographically isolated areas, with high shares in Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Northeast states (e.g., Mizoram, Nagaland). Their distribution reflects indigenous origins, primitive existence and dependence on forest resources, leading to clustering in inaccessible tribal belts like the Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats and central Indian highlands.
• Socio-economic problems of both groups include poverty, low literacy and social marginalisation, but differ in nature. SCs face intense caste-based discrimination, atrocities and social exclusion in mainstream society. Many remain landless labourers, engaged in menial jobs; for example, despite bans, manual scavenging persists in parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, causing health hazards and deaths.
• STs suffer from geographical isolation, displacement due to development projects and loss of traditional forest rights. Mining and dams often alienate their lands; the Dongria Kondh tribe in Odisha's Niyamgiri hills faced threats from bauxite mining (Vedanta case), leading to cultural erosion and livelihood loss. STs also experience higher malnutrition and limited access to education/health due to remoteness.
• While SC issues are rooted in social hierarchy, ST problems link to environmental exploitation and integration challenges. Both benefit from reservations, but implementation gaps persist, perpetuating inequality.

(b) Highlight the characteristics of land utilisation in Eastern Ghats region of India. What are the recent threats to land utilisation method in the region?
Ans:
The Eastern Ghats, stretching across Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Tamil Nadu, show diverse land utilisation shaped by undulating terrain, red soils and monsoon-dependent rainfall.

Key characteristics include:

• Agriculture dominates (~46% of area), mainly rainfed with paddy in valley floors, terrace farming on slopes and mixed cropping of millets, pulses and oilseeds.
• Tribal communities practise traditional shifting cultivation (podu) in hilly tracts.
• Forest cover, though declining, supports plantations like coffee and cashew in higher elevations.
• Mining (bauxite, iron ore) is prominent in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
• Land use reflects high tribal population and low mechanisation.

Recent threats to sustainable land utilisation are intensifying. Mining activities cause widespread deforestation and soil degradation, as seen in Kolli Hills (Tamil Nadu) and Odisha's bauxite zones. Land use changes for urbanisation, dams and industries fragment habitats; studies (up to 2025) show 15-16% forest loss over the past century. Climate change alters rainfall patterns, reducing agricultural productivity and promoting invasive species. Deforestation from firewood collection and commercial planting further erodes biodiversity-rich areas.

These threats risk traditional methods like podu and terrace farming, leading to soil erosion, biodiversity loss and livelihood insecurity for local communities.

(c) What are the challenges of dairy sector in India? Describe the contribution of bovine population. 
Ans:
India's dairy sector, the world's largest milk producer, faces several structural challenges despite growth.

Major challenges include:

• Low productivity due to poor breeds and limited scientific breeding coverage.
• Fodder shortage and rising feed costs squeeze farmer margins.
• Disease outbreaks like Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) and brucellosis affect animal health.
• Inadequate cold chain and storage infrastructure cause spoilage, especially in the unorganised sector (dominating ~70-80% procurement).
• Adulteration, fluctuating prices and informal marketing reduce quality and farmer income.
• Climate change impacts fodder availability and animal stress.

Recent issues (2025) involve raw milk inflation and competition from organised players.

The bovine population (cattle and buffaloes) is the backbone of the sector. India has ~304 million bovines (largest globally), with milch animals rising to ~112 million. In 2024-25, milk production reached 247.87 million tonnes (3.58% growth), contributing ~24% of global output.

Buffaloes provide ~45.3% of milk (high fat content), while cattle contribute ~44.5% (crossbreds yield more). Indigenous cows and exotic/crossbreds support rural livelihoods for millions of smallholders. Cooperatives like Amul and government schemes have boosted output, ensuring nutritional security and employment, especially for women.

Sustainable breed improvement and infrastructure are vital for future growth.

Q4: (a) "Socio-political landscape in India is a result of regional consciousness creating inter-state disputes." Discuss with region specific examples. 
Ans: 

• The socio-political landscape in India is profoundly shaped by regional consciousness, which fosters a sense of identity based on language, culture, history, and resources. This often leads to inter-state disputes, manifesting in water sharing, border demarcations, and resource allocation conflicts. Such disputes arise from historical legacies of colonial boundaries and post-independence state reorganizations, exacerbating tensions in a federal structure.
• Regional consciousness promotes sub-nationalism, where states prioritize local interests over national unity, leading to political mobilization and disputes. For instance, in South India, the Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu highlights how regional identities tied to agriculture and water security fuel conflicts. Karnataka's upstream position and Tamil Nadu's dependence on the river for irrigation have led to repeated Supreme Court interventions, with protests and political rhetoric intensifying during droughts. As of 2025, the Cauvery Water Management Authority continues to mediate, but regional parties like DMK and BJP use it for electoral gains.
• In Western India, the Maharashtra-Karnataka border dispute over Belgaum (Belagavi) exemplifies linguistic regionalism. Maharashtra claims the region due to its Marathi-speaking population, while Karnataka asserts historical integration. This has resulted in violent clashes, legal battles, and demands for Union Territory status, reflecting cultural assertion post-1956 States Reorganisation.
• In Eastern India, the Mahanadi water dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh underscores resource-based regionalism. Chhattisgarh's upstream dams affect Odisha's flood control and irrigation, leading to tribunal formations. In December 2025, Odisha formed a high-level committee to address this, amid accusations of central bias, highlighting federal imbalances.
• In North-East India, border disputes like Assam-Arunachal Pradesh over 804 km boundary involve tribal identities and resources. Historical colonial demarcations cause clashes, with 2022 MoUs partially resolving issues, but flare-ups continue in 2025, affecting development and security.
• These examples illustrate how regional consciousness, while enriching diversity, creates socio-political fragmentation. Resolving them requires strengthened federal mechanisms, like inter-state councils, and inclusive policies to balance regional aspirations with national integration.

(b) Why cottage industries in India are an integral part of Indian socio-economic structure? Assess this with reference to different types of cottage industries in rural India. 
Ans: Cottage industries are small-scale, home-based enterprises using local resources and traditional skills, forming an integral part of India's socio-economic structure. They provide decentralized employment, preserve cultural heritage, and contribute to rural development, reducing urban migration and poverty.

Firstly, they generate massive employment in rural areas, where formal jobs are scarce. As per 2025 statistics, village industries employ over 18 million artisans, accounting for about 30% of MSME contributions to GDP. This supports inclusive growth under schemes like One District One Product (ODOP) and Khadi Gramodyog.

Secondly, they promote self-reliance and sustainability by utilizing local materials, minimizing environmental impact. They empower women and marginalized groups, fostering social equity.

Assessing different types in rural India:

• Handloom and Textiles: In regions like Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) and Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu), handloom weaving employs millions, preserving traditional designs like Banarasi sarees. It contributes to exports and cultural identity but faces competition from powerlooms.
• Handicrafts: Rural artisans in Rajasthan and Odisha produce pottery, wood carvings, and metalwork. For example, terracotta crafts in Bengal support livelihoods and tourism, with 2025 Budget allocating funds for skill upgradation.
• Khadi and Village Industries: Promoted by KVIC, khadi production in Gujarat and Bihar emphasizes Gandhian self-sufficiency, employing over 1.5 crore people and boosting rural income.
• Coir Industry: In Kerala, coir processing from coconut husks provides jobs to coastal communities, exporting mats and ropes, integral to agro-based economy.
• Sericulture: Silk farming in Karnataka and Assam integrates agriculture with industry, empowering farmers through mulberry cultivation and reeling.

However, challenges like lack of technology, marketing, and finance hinder growth. Government initiatives like MSME schemes and digital platforms in 2025 aim to enhance competitiveness. Overall, cottage industries bridge rural-urban divides, ensuring socio-economic stability. 

(c) "The rural settlements in India are highly diversified due to both physical and cultural factors." Justify the statement with examples. 
Ans: 

Rural settlements in India exhibit high diversity in form, size, and pattern, influenced by physical factors like terrain, climate, and resources, and cultural factors such as ethnicity, caste, and traditions. This diversification reflects adaptation to local conditions, making Indian villages unique.

Physical factors dictate settlement patterns. In the Gangetic Plains, fertile alluvial soil and flat terrain favor clustered settlements, like nucleated villages in Uttar Pradesh, for efficient farming and flood protection. Conversely, in hilly regions like the Himalayas, rugged topography leads to dispersed hamlets, as seen in Uttarakhand, where houses are scattered for terrace farming and livestock rearing.

Arid climates in Rajasthan promote compact settlements around water sources, like wells or oases, to conserve resources. In coastal areas, such as Kerala, linear settlements along backwaters facilitate fishing and trade.

Cultural factors further diversify them. Tribal communities in North-East India, like Nagaland, form circular or semi-circular villages for defense and communal living, reflecting ethnic customs. Caste-based segregation in Bihar villages creates distinct quarters for different groups, influencing social structure.

In Punjab, Sikh-dominated areas feature planned rectangular settlements with wide streets, tied to agricultural prosperity and cultural emphasis on community.

Examples include:

• Clustered: Typical in Indo-Gangetic plains due to intensive agriculture.
• Dispersed: In Meghalaya's hills, influenced by matrilineal societies and shifting cultivation.
• Linear: Along roads in Tamil Nadu, driven by transport and trade.

This diversity enhances resilience but poses challenges for infrastructure. As of 2025, schemes like PMAY-G aim to standardize housing while respecting local variations. Thus, physical and cultural interplay justifies the diversification.