Q6: (a) Describe the causes of the phenomenon of 'urban heat island'. What are the effective measures to deal with this phenomenon in India?
Ans: The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect refers to the phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas, often by 3-10°C, due to human activities and modifications in the built environment.
The major causes are:
- Replacement of natural vegetation with concrete, asphalt and buildings, which absorb and retain more solar radiation.
- Reduced green cover and evapotranspiration, leading to less cooling through shade and moisture release.
- Anthropogenic heat release from vehicles, air conditioners, industries and power plants.
- Urban canyon effect created by tall buildings that trap heat and restrict airflow.
- High air pollution levels that trap long-wave radiation and create a local greenhouse effect.
In India, rapid urbanization and sprawling cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Ahmedabad have intensified UHI, contributing to deadly heatwaves in 2022-2025.
Effective measures to mitigate UHI in India include:
- Increasing urban green cover through afforestation, urban forests (e.g., Miyawaki method in cities), parks and tree plantation drives under National Mission for Green India.
- Promoting cool and green roofs, reflective paints and permeable pavements in new buildings, as encouraged under Smart Cities Mission and IGBC guidelines.
- Developing city-specific Heat Action Plans (first pioneered in Ahmedabad, now expanded to over 100 cities by 2025).
- Restoring urban water bodies and creating blue-green infrastructure to enhance cooling.
- Encouraging public transport, EVs and compact urban planning to reduce vehicular heat emissions.
An integrated approach combining policy, planning and community participation is essential for sustainable cooling of Indian cities.
(b) With reference to the transport and communication network of India, critically discuss the Sagarmala project.
Ans: The Sagarmala Project, launched in 2015, aims to promote port-led development and enhance India's maritime transport network. It rests on four pillars: port modernization, connectivity enhancement, port-linked industrialization and coastal community development. As of 2025, over 800 projects worth ₹6 lakh crore have been identified, with more than 300 completed.
Positively, Sagarmala has strengthened India's transport network by:
- Increasing port capacity from 1,500 MTPA in 2014 to over 2,600 MTPA.
- Improving last-mile connectivity through dedicated freight corridors, coastal shipping and inland waterways (National Waterway-1 and NW-2).
- Reducing logistics costs (currently 13-14% of GDP) and boosting EXIM trade.
- Generating employment in coastal economic zones.
However, critical challenges persist:
- Environmental concerns: Coastal projects have led to mangrove destruction, erosion and threat to marine ecosystems (e.g., controversies around Vadhavan and Great Nicobar ports).
- Social displacement of fishing communities with inadequate rehabilitation.
- Implementation delays, cost overruns and under-utilization of minor ports.
- Limited focus on sustainable and climate-resilient infrastructure amid rising sea levels.
While Sagarmala has potential to transform India's maritime economy, its success depends on balancing economic growth with ecological and social safeguards through stricter EIA norms and community-inclusive planning.
(c) What are the key features of sex-ratio of population in India? Evaluate the impacts of child sex-ratio on general sex-ratio in the country.
Ans: Sex ratio (females per 1,000 males) in India shows distinct patterns. As per Census 2011, overall sex ratio was 943, while child sex ratio (0-6 years) was 918. Recent estimates (SRS and NFHS-5) and progress under Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015) show gradual improvement, with sex ratio at birth reaching ~931 by 2024-25.
Key features:
- Regional variation: Adverse in north-western states (Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan) due to strong son preference; favourable in southern (Kerala ~1,084) and north-eastern states.
- Rural sex ratio generally higher than urban due to male migration to cities.
- Overall sex ratio better than child sex ratio because of higher female life expectancy.
- Historical decline in child sex ratio (from 945 in 1991 to 918 in 2011) due to sex-selective abortions, but recent reversal.
Low child sex ratio directly impacts general sex ratio in the long term. A skewed younger cohort means fewer females entering reproductive and adult age groups, leading to persistently low adult sex ratio over decades. This creates "missing women", marriage squeeze, increased trafficking, bride import, rising crimes against women and social instability (evident in Haryana and Punjab). It also distorts demographic dividend and perpetuates gender inequality.
Strict enforcement of PC-PNDT Act, awareness campaigns and incentives have begun reversing the trend, but sustained efforts are needed for balanced sex ratios.
Q7: (a) Explain the factors that contribute to droughts in India with specific reference to food production, distribution and availability. Can Indian agricultural policies resolve the issue?
Ans: Drought is a prolonged period of deficient precipitation leading to water shortage. India experiences frequent droughts due to its dependence on the southwest monsoon, which provides about 75% of annual rainfall.
Factors contributing to droughts include:
- Climatic factors: Erratic and uneven monsoon rainfall, influenced by El Niño (e.g., weak monsoon in 2023-24 due to El Niño), climate change causing delayed onset and early withdrawal, and global warming intensifying dry spells.
- Geographical factors: Rain-shadow regions such as Marathwada, Vidarbha, Bundelkhand and parts of Rajasthan receive low rainfall naturally.
- Anthropogenic factors: Over-exploitation of groundwater, deforestation, and unsustainable land use reducing soil moisture retention.
Impacts on food production, distribution and availability: About 60% of Indian agriculture is rainfed; droughts cause crop failure (especially kharif crops like rice, pulses and coarse cereals), reducing yields significantly (e.g., 2024 drought in parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra affected sugarcane and pulses). This leads to lower food production, higher imports, price spikes, hoarding, and disrupted supply chains. Availability declines, causing food insecurity, malnutrition (especially among children and women), and farmer distress.
Indian agricultural policies like Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) (promoting micro-irrigation), Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) (crop insurance), promotion of drought-resistant varieties and millets (International Year of Millets 2023 extended focus), and National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture help mitigate impacts by improving irrigation coverage (now ~52%) and risk coverage. However, challenges remain: low irrigation penetration in drought-prone areas, delayed insurance payouts, groundwater depletion, and climate unpredictability. Policies can reduce vulnerability but cannot fully resolve droughts without integrated water management, community participation and global climate action.
Thus, while policies provide relief and resilience, complete resolution requires addressing root climatic and anthropogenic causes.
(b) What are the causes and consequences of land degradation due to desertification in India? Examine with reference to various regional issues.
Ans: Desertification is the degradation of dryland ecosystems due to climatic variations and human activities, turning productive land into desert-like conditions. India has about 30% of its land degraded, with desertification affecting arid and semi-arid regions significantly.
Causes:
- Natural: Low rainfall, high evaporation, wind erosion and occasional droughts in arid zones.
- Human-induced: Overgrazing, deforestation, excessive groundwater extraction, faulty irrigation leading to salinization, mining and over-cultivation.
Regional issues:
- Rajasthan and Gujarat (Thar region): Wind erosion, overgrazing and deforestation cause advancing sand dunes.
- Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh: Canal irrigation without drainage leads to waterlogging and salinization/alkalinisation.
- Cold deserts of Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh: Tourism pressure, overgrazing and glacial retreat accelerate soil erosion.
- Bundelkhand and Rayalaseema: Deforestation and soil erosion due to erratic rainfall.
Consequences: Reduced soil fertility and agricultural productivity, loss of biodiversity, increased dust storms, rural distress and migration. It exacerbates poverty, food insecurity and climate vulnerability. For example, in Rajasthan, desertification has reduced cultivable land, forcing migration to urban areas.
Government efforts like Integrated Watershed Management Programme, afforestation under Green India Mission and Desert Development Programme aim at restoration. However, sustained community involvement and sustainable land-use practices are essential to reverse desertification effectively.
(c) Examine the validity of Blue Economy initiatives of India. Elaborate the impacts of this economy on country's development.
Ans: The Blue Economy refers to sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs while preserving marine ecosystem health. India, with a 7,517 km coastline and 2.02 million sq km Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), has strong potential.
Key initiatives include Sagarmala Project (port modernisation and coastal connectivity), Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) (fisheries infrastructure and aquaculture), Deep Ocean Mission (ocean resources exploration and technology), offshore wind energy projects and coastal tourism promotion. These are aligned with SDG-14 and India's maritime vision.
Validity: Initiatives are valid given India's vast marine resources, rising fish production (India is second-largest aquaculture producer), and need for sustainable growth. Progress till 2025 includes increased port capacity under Sagarmala, higher fish exports (~₹60,000 crore annually), and advances in deep-sea mining technology. However, challenges like marine pollution, overfishing and coastal erosion question full sustainability.
Impacts on development:
- Economic: Contributes ~4-5% to GDP; expected to grow with fisheries, shipping, tourism and renewable energy.
- Employment: Supports livelihoods of ~4 million fishers and creates jobs in ports, aquaculture and tourism.
- Environmental: Promotes conservation through marine protected areas and sustainable fishing.
- Strategic: Enhances maritime security and regional influence.
Overall, Blue Economy initiatives are valid and transformative for inclusive, sustainable development if implemented with strong environmental safeguards.
Q8: (a) While defining the green architecture, discuss its principles and challenges in response to climate change in India.
Ans: Green architecture, also known as sustainable or eco-friendly architecture, is the philosophy and practice of designing, constructing and operating buildings in a way that minimises environmental impact, optimises resource efficiency and ensures human well-being throughout the building's life cycle-from site selection to demolition.
The key principles of green architecture are:
- Energy efficiency: Use of passive design, renewable energy (solar), insulation and efficient appliances to reduce consumption.
- Water conservation: Rainwater harvesting, wastewater recycling and low-flow fixtures.
- Sustainable materials: Locally sourced, recycled, low-embodied energy and non-toxic materials.
- Waste minimisation: Reduce, reuse and recycle construction waste.
- Indoor environmental quality: Natural ventilation, daylighting and non-toxic interiors.
- Site sensitivity: Preserving ecology, biodiversity and reducing urban heat island effect.
In the context of climate change, green architecture plays a crucial role in India, where the building sector accounts for nearly 30-35% of total energy consumption and significant GHG emissions. It helps in mitigation by reducing carbon footprint and adaptation by making structures resilient to heat waves, floods and cyclones.
India has promoted green architecture through GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) and IGBC (Indian Green Building Council) rating systems. Notable examples include the ITC Green Centre (Gurgaon) and Suzlon One Earth (Pune). Recent policy pushes include mandatory energy conservation building codes (ECBC) and targets for net-zero buildings under India's updated NDCs (2022-2025).
However, several challenges persist:
- High initial costs deter widespread adoption, especially in affordable housing.
- Lack of skilled professionals and supply chains for green materials.
- Weak enforcement of green norms in tier-2/3 cities amid rapid urbanisation.
- Low public awareness and inadequate fiscal incentives.
- Retrofitting existing stock remains technically and financially difficult.
Despite these, initiatives like the Smart Cities Mission and National Mission on Sustainable Habitat are gradually mainstreaming green architecture to combat climate change.
(b) With reference to typical examples, assess why regional planning in India is important for island territories for their sustainable development.
Ans: India's island territories-Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep-are characterised by fragile ecosystems, limited land and water resources, high biodiversity, strategic location and vulnerability to climate change. Regional planning is essential to balance development with conservation for their sustainable growth.
Key reasons for its importance are:
- Ecological fragility: Coral reefs, mangroves and endemic species need protection. Unplanned development can cause irreversible damage.
- Climate vulnerability: Rising sea levels, cyclones and coastal erosion threaten habitability. Planning ensures resilient infrastructure.
- Resource constraints: Limited freshwater and land necessitate zoning and carrying capacity-based development.
- Economic dependence on tourism and fisheries: Sustainable models like eco-tourism prevent over-exploitation.
- Strategic and security concerns: Controlled development maintains ecological buffers and national interests.
Typical examples highlight the need:
In Lakshadweep, NITI Aayog's Holistic Development Plan (2020-ongoing till 2025) emphasises water security, renewable energy (solar), high-value tourism and lagoon conservation. Without regional planning, unregulated tourism could degrade corals, as seen in earlier unregulated construction.
In Andaman & Nicobar, the Integrated Island Management Plans and restrictions under Island Protection Zone Notification guide development. The controversial Great Nicobar Development Project (port, airport, township) has raised concerns over deforestation and tribal rights, underscoring the need for comprehensive regional planning to minimise ecological trade-offs while achieving strategic infrastructure goals.
Thus, regional planning ensures environmental conservation, disaster resilience, equitable growth and long-term sustainability in these isolated territories.
(c) With reference to international boundaries of India, discuss the related issues, giving suitable examples.
Ans: India shares land boundaries of about 15,106 km with seven countries and maritime boundaries with several others. These boundaries pose multiple geopolitical, security and socio-economic issues.
Major issues include:
- Territorial disputes: Unresolved claims lead to tensions and militarisation.
- Cross-border terrorism and infiltration: Porous segments facilitate illegal movement.
- Illegal migration and smuggling: Strain resources and create demographic concerns.
- Boundary management challenges: Riverine shifts, fencing difficulties in tough terrain and coordination issues.
- Refugee and ethnic overlaps: Complicate relations.
Suitable examples:
- India-China boundary (LAC, ~3,488 km): Undefined in parts, leading to standoffs. The 2020 Galwan clash highlighted risks. Subsequent disengagement agreements (Depsang, Demchok by 2024-25) and patrolling arrangements have reduced friction, but mutual trust remains low.
- India-Pakistan boundary (LoC, ~740 km in J&K): Frequent ceasefire violations (though largely stable since 2021 renewal) and cross-border terrorism remain concerns. Issues include shelling and infiltration attempts.
- India-Bangladesh boundary (~4,096 km): Largely resolved through 2015 Land Boundary Agreement (enclave exchange). Remaining issues involve riverine border shifts (e.g., Ganga-Padma) and occasional illegal cattle smuggling/migration.
- India-Myanmar boundary (~1,643 km): Porous northeastern stretch enables insurgency and drug trafficking. Rohingya refugee inflows (post-2017) added humanitarian dimensions.
- India-Nepal boundary (~1,751 km): Open border facilitates movement but disputes like Kalapani-Lipulekh (triggered by 2019-20 map issues) persist.
Effective management through diplomacy, fencing (where feasible), joint mechanisms and technology is crucial for security and peaceful neighbourhood relations.
