Legal Current Affairs for CLAT (July 2025)- 2

Table of Contents
1. ICJ's Climate Ruling
2. The International Court of Justice
3. ICC Warrants on Taliban Leaders
4. The International Criminal Court
5. Recognising Palestine
6. COP15 - Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
7. Senegal Declared Trachoma Free by WHO
8. Thailand-Cambodia Conflict
9. Prime Minister's Visit to Trinidad and Tobago
10. India-CARICOM Ties
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ICJ's Climate Ruling

What the Ruling Says

• The International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark advisory opinion on 23 July supporting stronger climate action.
• The Court said states have a legal obligation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• The opinion followed a UN General Assembly resolution of March 2022 that sought clarity on states' climate responsibilities.
• The ICJ examined whether states must protect the climate system and what legal consequences follow if they fail to do so.
• More than 150 submissions were received, making it the largest proceeding ever before the Court.
• Over 100 states and international organisations participated in hearings last December.
• The Court reviewed the UNFCCC (1994), the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015), among other instruments.
• Other treaties examined included UNCLOS (1982), the Montreal Protocol (1987), the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Convention to Combat Desertification (1994).
• The ICJ declared that climate action is a legal duty, not merely a policy choice.
• Annex I states under the UNFCCC-rich and industrialised countries-must lead emission reductions and support technology transfer and finance to developing states.
• The Court held that failure to fulfil climate obligations can be an internationally wrongful act with legal consequences.
• States may be liable to provide full reparation, including compensation, for climate-related harm or disasters.
• States are responsible for failing to regulate private actors, including fossil fuel companies, if they do not exercise due diligence.
• The ICJ affirmed that a clean, healthy and sustainable environment is a human right necessary for enjoyment of other human rights.
• The UN General Assembly recognised this right in 2022 and the ICJ emphasised its centrality.
• As parties to human rights treaties, states are bound to address climate change to protect human rights.
• The Court rejected claims that the Paris Agreement alone defines states' climate obligations.
• The ICJ clarified that multiple branches of international law-human rights, environmental law and the UN Charter-apply to climate obligations.
• All states have a duty to prevent environmental harm irrespective of treaty membership.
• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) must be ambitious, science-based and progressively strengthened over time.
• The Court stated that breaches include concerns about fossil fuel production, consumption and subsidies.
• States must regulate the climate impact of businesses and corporations within their jurisdiction.
• States harmed by climate change have the right to seek reparations such as restitution, compensation or guarantees of non-repetition.

The International Court of Justice

Overview

• The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations.
• Its seat is at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, and it is the only UN principal organ not based in New York.
• The Statute of the ICJ, which forms part of the UN Charter, sets out its structure, jurisdiction and procedures.
• The ICJ is the UN's principal judicial organ and is often called the World Court.
• It was established by the UN Charter in 1945 and began work in 1946.
• The ICJ replaced the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), which had operated since 1922.
• The PCIJ was dissolved in April 1946; the ICJ held its first public sitting on 18 April 1946, with Judge José Gustavo Guerrero as its first president.
• The Court's first case was the Corfu Channel case (United Kingdom v. Albania, 1947).
• All 193 UN member states are parties to the ICJ Statute by default.
• Non-UN states can also become parties under Article 93 procedures.
• The ICJ settles legal disputes between states and issues advisory opinions for UN organs and specialised agencies.
• ICJ judgments are binding on the parties concerned.
• The UN Security Council can take measures to enforce ICJ judgments, although P5 members may influence enforcement through veto powers.
• The official languages of the Court are English and French.

Jurisdiction

• The ICJ has two principal types of jurisdiction: contentious cases and advisory opinions.
• In contentious cases the Court decides legal disputes submitted to it by states only.
• States must consent to the Court's jurisdiction; international organisations and private individuals cannot bring cases.
• The Court can hear a dispute only if the states involved have recognised its jurisdiction.
• Judgments in contentious cases are final, binding and not subject to appeal.
• Advisory opinions are issued to certain UN organs and specialised agencies and are not legally binding.
• Advisory opinions carry significant legal weight and moral authority and help develop international law.
• The ICJ also exercises mainline and incidental jurisdiction.
• Mainline jurisdiction covers decisions on the substance and merits of a case.
• Incidental jurisdiction covers interlocutory and procedural matters that support the mainline jurisdiction.
• Under incidental jurisdiction the Court can determine its competence in a case and control proceedings, including ordering interim measures of protection.
• The Statute details the Court's role in dispute settlement, advisory proceedings, judge selection and case procedures.

Judges

• The ICJ comprises 15 judges who each serve nine-year terms.
• Judges are elected separately and simultaneously by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council, each requiring an absolute majority.
• Elections occur every three years to replace one-third of the bench, and retiring judges may be re-elected.
• If a judge dies or resigns, a special election fills the unexpired term.
• Elections take place in New York during the General Assembly autumn session and new judges assume office on 6 February.
• After appointment, the Court elects a President and a Vice-President by secret ballot for three years.
• States party to the Statute nominate candidates via groups of four jurists attached to the Permanent Court of Arbitration or a similar national group.
• Each nominating group may propose up to four candidates, but only two may be of the group's nationality.
• Candidate names must be communicated to the UN Secretary-General within a deadline set by the Secretary-General.
• Judges must be persons of high moral character and either qualified for top judicial office in their country or recognised as international law experts.
• No two judges may be nationals of the same country, and the Court should represent principal legal systems and major civilisations.
• Judges are independent and do not represent their governments; they take an oath to act impartially before assuming office.
• Removal of a judge requires unanimous agreement of other Members that the judge no longer meets required conditions; this has never occurred.
• Judges enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities equivalent to heads of mission.
• Each judge received an annual base salary of US$191,263 in 2023, with the President receiving an extra US$25,000 allowance.
• Salaries are adjusted monthly with the UN dollar-euro exchange rate and judges receive a pension equal to half their base salary after a nine-year term.
• Regional distribution is: 3 from Africa, 2 from Latin America & Caribbean, 3 from Asia, 5 from Western Europe & other states, and 2 from Eastern Europe.
• Indian judges at the ICJ include Judge Dalveer Bhandari (member since 27 April 2012), Raghunandan Swarup Pathak (1989-1991), Nagendra Singh (1973-1988; President 1985-1988) and Sir Benegal Rau (1952-1953).

ICC Warrants on Taliban Leaders

Overview

• The International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for two senior Taliban leaders on 8 July 2025 in connection with alleged abuses against women and girls.
• The warrants target Haibatullah Akhundzada, the Supreme Leader of the Taliban, and Abdul Hakim Haqqani, the Taliban's Chief Justice.
• They are accused of severe restrictions and other abuses affecting women and girls, including limits on education and employment.
• The ICC's action is a significant step to address gender-based crimes under international criminal law.

Who Are the Taliban?

• The Taliban, also called the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a political and militant movement in Afghanistan.
• Its roots lie in the Deobandi strand of Islamic fundamentalism.
• The Taliban regained control of Afghanistan in August 2021 after the withdrawal of US-led forces and the collapse of the internationally recognised Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

History of Afghanistan and the Taliban

• The Kingdom of Afghanistan existed as a constitutional monarchy from 1926 and was successor to the Emirate of Afghanistan.
• In 1934 Afghanistan joined the League of Nations during Zahir Shah's reign.
• During World War II Afghanistan remained neutral and pursued non-alignment.
• The creation of Pakistan in 1947 created border and political problems for Afghanistan.
• In 1973 political crises ended the monarchy and established a republic.
• In 1978 a Soviet-backed Communist party seized power, prompting widespread rebellion.
• The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979 at the government's request to support the regime.
• Anti-Communist Islamic forces, the Mujahideen, were trained in Pakistan and supported by the US and other anti-Soviet states during the 1980s.
• The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 led to civil war among Mujahideen factions, and the Taliban emerged as a dominant force by 1994.
• The Taliban were largely young men and boys raised in refugee camps and trained in conservative madrassas in Pakistan.
• Only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the UAE officially recognised the Taliban regime in the 1990s, while Pakistan provided primary military support.
• Under Taliban rule Afghanistan became the world's largest producer of opium and an important drug-processing hub.
• Plans for a Caspian-to-Pakistan oil/gas pipeline were considered a future source of Taliban revenue.

Women's Rights Under the Taliban

• Since taking power in 2021, the Taliban have rolled back many rights Afghan women and girls gained over two decades.
• Haibatullah Akhundzada ratified strict morality laws requiring women to cover their faces and prohibiting travel without a male guardian.
• Women have been barred from entering public and amusement parks and from attending gyms and fitness centres.
• Hundreds of beauty salons for women were ordered closed.
• Girls are allowed to attend school only up to age 12 (grade 6); further education including university has been disallowed.
• Women have been banned from most public sector jobs and many NGO positions, with limited exceptions such as healthcare.
• The Taliban claim their policies reflect their interpretation of Islamic law and local custom and label them internal matters.
• Western diplomats have said official recognition of the Taliban will not proceed unless their stance on women's rights changes.

Recent ICC Development

• On 8 July 2025 the ICC Pre-Trial Chamber issued warrants for Haibatullah Akhundzada and Abdul Hakim Haqqani concerning the situation in Afghanistan.
• The Chamber found reasonable grounds to believe crimes against humanity under Article 7(1)(h) of the Rome Statute were committed.
• The charges allege persecution targeting girls, women and persons whose gender identity or expression did not conform to Taliban policies, as well as political persecution of allies of women and girls.
• The alleged crimes occurred on Afghan territory from 15 August 2021 until at least 20 January 2025.
• The alleged persecution included severe deprivations of rights such as physical integrity, free movement, expression, education and assembly.
• The Chamber found that the Taliban implemented a governmental policy resulting in severe violations, including murder, imprisonment, torture, rape and enforced disappearance, especially against women and girls.
• The Taliban issued decrees and edicts that deprived women and girls of education, privacy, family life and various freedoms.
• Individuals were also targeted on grounds of sexuality or gender identity when these did not align with Taliban policies.
• The Chamber emphasised that Article 7(1)(h) is designed to protect victims, especially women and girls disproportionately affected by gender-based persecution.
• To protect victims and witnesses, the Chamber kept the warrants under seal while publicly disclosing their existence for prevention and justice reasons.

The International Criminal Court

What the ICC Is

• The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent criminal tribunal established by the Rome Statute in 1998.
• It investigates, prosecutes and tries individuals accused of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity.
• The ICC may impose prison sentences on those convicted.
• The Court began functioning on 1 July 2002 after 60 states ratified the Rome Statute.
• The ICC is headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands.
• It serves as a court of last resort when national jurisdictions are unwilling or unable to prosecute serious crimes.
• Unlike the ICJ, which adjudicates disputes between states, the ICC prosecutes individuals.
• The ICC's jurisdiction covers crimes committed after 1 July 2002 in states that have ratified the Statute or by nationals of such states.
• Many Middle Eastern and Asian countries did not join the Statute; notable non-participants include China, Russia and the United States.
• Within five years of its first session, over 100 countries had ratified the Rome Statute.
• The Assembly of States Parties, comprising member countries, oversees the ICC's work.

How the ICC Issues Warrants

• The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) starts with a preliminary examination to see if alleged crimes fall within ICC jurisdiction and meet criteria like complementarity and gravity.
• If criteria are met, the OTP opens a formal investigation to collect evidence, inspect crime scenes, interview victims and witnesses, and identify the most responsible persons.
• Based on evidence, the Prosecutor may request the Pre-Trial Chamber to issue an arrest warrant or a summons to appear.
• An arrest warrant is sought when there are reasonable grounds to believe a person committed a crime and arrest is needed to secure their appearance, prevent interference, or stop further crimes.
• A summons is used if the person is likely to appear voluntarily.
• The Pre-Trial Chamber reviews the request and supporting material and, if satisfied, issues the warrant or summons naming the suspect, the crimes and key evidence.
• Once issued, the ICC depends on member states to execute arrests and surrender suspects to The Hague because the Court has no police force.
• Proceedings are held with the accused present and the person is presumed innocent until proven guilty.
• Securing cooperation is often difficult with high-profile suspects or non-member states, as human rights groups have noted.

Challenges for the ICC

• The ICC has faced criticism and resistance from non-member states such as the United States, Israel and Russia.
• In 2023 the Court issued an arrest warrant for Russian President Vladimir Putin related to allegations of deporting children from Ukraine.
• In 2024 the ICC issued an arrest warrant for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu over alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity in the Gaza conflict.
• Russia and Israel denied the accusations and rejected the ICC's jurisdiction in those cases.
• In June 2025 the United States imposed sanctions on four ICC judges, including two linked to the Afghanistan investigation involving alleged crimes by US troops.

Recognising Palestine

Recent Developments

• Canada announced plans to formally recognise Palestine during the UN General Assembly in September, following a declaration co-signed by France and 14 other countries.
• France and the UK have announced intentions to recognise Palestine, and New Zealand and Australia were signatories to a declaration suggesting they may follow.

About Palestine

• The State of Palestine is a West Asian entity recognised by 147 of the UN's 193 member states.
• It comprises the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip, together known as the occupied Palestinian territories.
• The territories largely border Israel, with the West Bank also bordering Jordan and the Gaza Strip bordering Egypt.
• Palestine enjoys extensive diplomatic recognition, missions abroad and participation in sporting events, including the Olympics.
• However, due to the dispute with Israel, Palestine lacks internationally agreed boundaries, a universally recognised capital and an army.
• Because of Israel's occupation, the Palestinian Authority does not exercise full control in the West Bank.
• Gaza is suffering a devastating war and remains under acute humanitarian stress.

History

• Britain took control of Palestine after the Ottoman defeat in World War I.
• The 1917 Balfour Declaration endorsed a Jewish homeland in Palestine and was addressed to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild.
• Earlier, in 1903 Joseph Chamberlain proposed the Uganda Plan as an alternative Jewish homeland, which was later dropped.
• Jewish migration to Palestine increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; by 1917 about 60,000 Jews lived there, roughly 9% of the population.
• Zionist leaders argued a national home in Palestine was the solution to the so-called Jewish question.
• Between the 1920s and 1940s Jewish immigration rose amid European persecution, increasing communal violence.
• In 1947 the UN proposed partition into Jewish and Arab states and an international status for Jerusalem; Jewish leaders accepted the plan while Arab leaders rejected it.
• When Britain withdrew in 1948 Jewish leaders declared the state of Israel, leading to war and large Palestinian displacement known as Al Nakba ("the Catastrophe").
• After the 1948 war, Jordan occupied the West Bank and Egypt occupied Gaza; Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan.
• In the 1967 Six-Day War Israel occupied East Jerusalem, the West Bank, the Golan Heights, Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula.
• The 1973 Yom Kippur War followed and in 1979 Israel returned Sinai to Egypt under a peace treaty; Egypt became the first Arab state to recognise Israel.
• Israel built and expanded settlements in the West Bank and East Jerusalem; Gaza saw an Israeli withdrawal in 2005 but remains disputed and subject to occupation dynamics.
• Militant groups such as the PLO and Hamas emerged seeking Palestinian liberation; the conflict remains unresolved.

History of Recognising Palestine

• On 15 November 1988 Yasser Arafat proclaimed an independent State of Palestine with Jerusalem as its capital.
• Algeria was the first country to recognise that proclamation, followed by many others.
• By the end of 1988 some 83 countries recognised Palestine; by the end of the century the number grew to about 103.
• Between 2004 and 2012 thirty more countries recognised Palestine, and as of the present it has recognition from 147 states.
• At the UN Palestine has permanent observer state status, allowing participation but no vote.
• With France and the UK signalling recognition, Palestine may soon gain backing from four P5 members, leaving the United States in opposition.
• The United States recognises the Palestinian Authority but has not recognised a Palestinian state.
• US policy has varied by administration; some presidents supported a two-state outcome while others, notably Donald Trump, leaned strongly towards Israel.

How a Country Is Recognised by the UN

• The Montevideo Convention (1933) sets criteria for statehood: a permanent population, defined territory, effective government and capacity for international relations.
• Formal diplomatic processes such as embassies, ambassadors and treaties are part of state practice.
• A state seeking UN membership applies to the Secretary-General, who refers the request to the Security Council.
• The Security Council's recommendation requires at least nine votes in favour and no veto by any P5 member.
• If the Security Council recommends membership, the General Assembly must approve by a two-thirds majority.
• A state cannot join the UN without backing from both the Security Council and the General Assembly.
• In 2011 the Security Council considered Palestine's application but failed to take a final vote, and a likely US veto prevented progress.
• Palestine has had non-member observer state status since 2012 and requested reconsideration for full membership in April.

Why Palestine Seeks Recognition

• Palestine seeks recognition to secure self-determination and govern its people independently.
• Recognition would provide international legitimacy and stronger legal standing in global institutions.
• It could revive prospects for a two-state solution and increase pressure on Israel over settlements and military policies.
• Recognition would strengthen Palestine's ability to protect human rights and pursue justice for displaced refugees since 1948.
• Enhanced UN status could alter voting dynamics and diplomatic relations globally.
• Recognition would enable Palestine to bring legal claims against Israel in international courts more forcefully.

India-Palestine Relations

• Support for the Palestinian cause is an established element of India's foreign policy.
• In 1974 India became the first non-Arab state to recognise the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the representative of the Palestinian people.
• India recognised the Palestinian State in 1988.
• India opened a Representative Office in Gaza in 1996; this was shifted to Ramallah in 2003.
• In 2011 India voted in favour of Palestine joining UNESCO as a full member.
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Palestine on 10 February 2018, the first Indian Prime Minister to do so.
• President Pranab Mukherjee visited in October 2015, the first Indian President to visit Palestine.
• The first India-Palestine Joint Commission Meeting took place in Ramallah in November 2016.
• The IBSA Fund supported projects in Palestine worth US$5 million.

COP15 - Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

Ramsar Convention and Wetland Definition

• Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil or remains near the soil surface seasonally or year-round, including during the growing season.
• The Ramsar Convention defines wetlands as marsh, fen, peatland or water areas, natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with static or flowing fresh, brackish or salt water, and marine areas with depth at low tide not exceeding six metres.
• The Ramsar Convention is an intergovernmental treaty for conserving and wisely using wetlands.
• A Ramsar Site is a wetland designated as internationally important and protected under the Convention's guidelines.
• The Convention was adopted in Ramsar, Iran, on 2 February 1971 and entered into force in 1975.
• 2 February is observed as World Wetlands Day; the 2025 theme was "Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future."
• Nearly 90% of UN member states have acceded to the Convention as Contracting Parties.
• Contracting Parties meet every three years at COP to discuss policy and report via National Reports.
• The Convention's objective includes identifying and listing wetlands of international importance on the Ramsar List.
• The Montreux Record is a register within the Convention highlighting wetlands at risk of change in ecological character due to human interference.
• There are over 2,500 Ramsar Sites across 172 Contracting Parties, covering more than 2.5 million square kilometres.
• The first Ramsar Site was Cobourg Peninsula in Australia, designated in 1974.
• The largest Ramsar Sites include the Rio Negro in Brazil (120,000 sq km) and Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe in the DRC.
• The United Kingdom has the most Sites (176) and Mexico follows with 144.
• Brazil has the largest area under protection at about 267,000 sq km.
• Globally wetlands cover about 6.4% of the earth's land surface.

COP15 - Key Outcomes

• COP15 took place in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, from 23 to 31 July 2025 and brought together governments, UN agencies, scientists, conservation organisations and local communities.
• It was the second time Africa hosted a Ramsar COP; Uganda hosted COP9 in 2005.
• Zimbabwe assumed the COP presidency from China and Panama will host COP16 in 2028.
• Thirteen resolutions and a 5th Strategic Plan were adopted to strengthen wetland protection.
• Major resolutions included commitments to wetland restoration, flyway conservation for migratory birds and the Global Waterbird Estimates Partnership.
• The 5th Strategic Plan (2025-2034) was adopted with four goals and 18 targets to reverse wetland loss and improve management.
• The Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP) was asked to develop indicators to track progress against these goals.
• Parties agreed a 4.1% increase in the Convention's core budget, bringing the 2025-2027 triennium total to CHF 15.5 million (about US$19.4 million).

India's Role and Historic Resolution

• India introduced a resolution titled "Promoting Sustainable Lifestyles for the Wise Use of Wetlands."
• The resolution was adopted on 30 July 2025 with broad support from the 172 Contracting Parties and several observers.
• Union Minister Bhupender Yadav described sustainable lifestyles as ways of living and choices that minimise environmental degradation, support equitable socio-economic development and improve quality of life.
• The resolution highlights community-driven conservation and how individual and community choices can protect wetlands.
• The initiative aligns with India's Mission LiFE first announced at UNFCCC COP26 and links to Resolution XIV.8 on new CEPA approaches and a 10-year framework on sustainable production and consumption.

Other COP15 Decisions

• Parties adopted a resolution on equitable governance to support rights-based conservation and the use of protected areas and OECMs (Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures).
• They committed to strengthen national laws and policies for restoring degraded freshwater ecosystems and to consider the Freshwater Challenge for national implementation.
• A resolution was adopted to apply specific criteria for designating Wetlands of International Importance using population estimates and ecological data from IUCN sources.
• The Ramsar Wetland Conservation Awards, established in 1996, continue to recognise excellence in wetland conservation and wise use.

India and Ramsar: Facts

• India has been a Contracting Party to the Ramsar Convention since 1982.
• India has 91 Ramsar Sites covering 1,359,434 hectares, including two sites added on 5 June 2025: Khichan (Phalodi) and Menar (Udaipur) in Rajasthan.
• This is the largest Ramsar network in Asia and the third largest globally.
• As of 2025 Indian wetlands cover approximately 15.2 million hectares and the country has about 757,060 wetlands.
• Gujarat leads in wetland area with 17.56% of the state's geographical area and 23.1% of the country's wetland area owing to its long coastline.
• Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Ramsar Sites in India (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
• In January 2025 Indore and Udaipur became India's first accredited wetland cities under the Ramsar Convention.
• India reported rejuvenation of over 68,827 small wetlands within one year through people's participation and technological measures.
• Government schemes cited include Mission Sahbhagita and Amrit Sarovar, aimed at community engagement and rejuvenation of small wetlands.
• Presentations at COP15 highlighted community-led examples such as Sultanpur National Park and Bhindawas Bird Sanctuary in Haryana.

Senegal Declared Trachoma Free by WHO

What Trachoma Is

• Trachoma is an eye disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis, an obligate intracellular organism.
• The infection spreads via direct or indirect contact with eye and nose discharges from infected people.
• In endemic areas active trachoma is common among preschool children, with prevalence sometimes as high as 60-90%.
• Infection frequency and duration decline with increasing age.
• Repeated infections over years can scar the inner eyelid (trachomatous conjunctival scarring), causing the eyelid to turn inwards so eyelashes rub the eyeball (trachomatous trichiasis).
• Trichiasis causes constant pain, light intolerance and can scar the cornea, leading to irreversible opacities, visual impairment or blindness if untreated.
• Trachoma accounts for about 1.4% of global blindness.
• As of April 2025, 103 million people live in trachoma-endemic areas and remain at risk of trachoma blindness.
• Trachoma remains a public health problem in 32 countries and causes blindness or visual impairment in about 1.9 million people worldwide.
• Africa is the most affected continent and the focus of intensive control efforts.
• By 18 July 2025, 25 countries had been validated by WHO as having eliminated trachoma as a public health problem, including Senegal.

WHO Efforts and SAFE Strategy

• WHO adopted the SAFE strategy in 1993 to eliminate trachoma: Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness and Environmental improvement.
• The strategy includes surgery for advanced disease stages.
• Antibiotic mass drug administration of azithromycin has been a key intervention, with donations coordinated via the International Trachoma Initiative.
• Public awareness campaigns promote facial cleanliness to reduce transmission.
• Improvements in water, sanitation and hygiene are central to reducing disease spread.
• WHO leads global coordination, provides technical leadership and monitors progress towards elimination targets.
• The WHO Alliance for the Global Elimination of Trachoma was launched in 1996 to support national implementation of SAFE.
• The World Health Assembly adopted resolution WHA51.11 in 1998 targeting elimination by 2020; the 2021-2030 NTD roadmap sets 2030 as the new target.
• In 2025 the Trump administration paused US$114.5 million in USAID NTD funding, suspending support to 26 countries including Senegal.

Trachoma in Senegal

• Senegal became the second country in Africa to be validated for trachoma elimination after Guinea-worm in 2004.
• Trachoma has affected Senegal since the early 1900s and was highlighted in surveys during the 1980s and 1990s.
• Senegal joined the WHO Alliance for trachoma elimination in 1998.
• With support from the Global Trachoma Mapping Project and Tropical Data, Senegal completed national mapping by 2017.
• The country implemented the SAFE strategy and reached 2.8 million people in need across 24 districts.
• Senegal received technical and funding support from the Accelerate programme, Sightsavers and national authorities.
• Senegal is the second Accelerate-supported country to be validated for elimination after Benin.
• Validation of Senegal is an important milestone towards a trachoma-free Africa, reducing the number of endemic countries on the continent.

About Senegal

• The Republic of Senegal is a West African country covering almost 197,000 square kilometres.
• Located at Africa's westernmost point, it is often described as the "Gateway to Africa."
• The region was part of the ancient Ghana and Djolof kingdoms and an important node on trans-Saharan trade routes.
• European powers contested the area before it became a French colony in the late 19th century.
• Senegal gained independence in 1960 under Léopold Senghor, first as part of the Mali Federation and then as a sovereign state.
• Major industries include fish processing, phosphate mining, fertiliser production, petroleum refining and ship construction and repair.
• French is the official language and the capital is Dakar.
• Bassirou Diomaye Faye is the current president.
• India and Senegal established diplomatic ties in 1962, with India opening a resident mission in Dakar and Senegal opening an embassy in New Delhi in 1974.

Thailand-Cambodia Conflict

Recent Escalation

• Thailand's army launched strikes on Cambodian military sites along their disputed border on 24 July after clashes that killed at least 11 Thai civilians.
• The attacks escalated tensions in a long-running border dispute where several stretches remain unmarked or contested.
• The two countries share an 800+ km land border with repeated friction at unmarked points.

Historical Background

• Preah Vihear temple dates to the 11th-12th centuries and reflects the Khmer Empire's Hindu-Buddhist heritage.
• Control of Preah Vihear shifted over centuries between Khmer and Siamese powers due to changing boundaries.
• Siamese forces sacked Angkor Thom in 1431 and over subsequent centuries Siam encroached on Cambodian territory.
• In 1863 Cambodian King Norodom invited France to make Cambodia a protectorate to escape Siamese dominance.
• The 1904 Franco-Siamese treaty defined the border along the Dangrek Mountains watershed, placing Preah Vihear in Thai territory on paper.
• In 1907 French cartographers produced a map that placed Preah Vihear in Cambodian territory and Siamese representatives did not protest the map at that time.
• Thailand briefly seized Preah Vihear during World War II but returned it after the war.
• In 1954 Thai troops again occupied the site and Cambodia filed a case at the ICJ in 1959.
• In 1962 the ICJ ruled 9-3 in favour of Cambodia, ordering Thai withdrawal and return of relics.
• The area became inaccessible during the Khmer Rouge era and remained sensitive throughout the late 20th century.
• In 2008 UNESCO listed Preah Vihear as a World Heritage Site, which reignited tensions because Thailand saw it as implying Cambodian control of surrounding land.
• Following the listing, border skirmishes and political tensions flared, with casualties in 2009 and subsequent years.
• Attempts at peaceful resolution have repeatedly stalled, and the issue over surrounding land remains unresolved.

Recent Series of Events

• On 13 February Cambodian soldiers escorted 25 civilians to Prasat Ta Moan Thon where they reportedly sang the Cambodian anthem; Thai officials protested as inappropriate.
• On 17 February Thailand sent a warning letter to Cambodia calling the event a breach of mutual tourist protocols.
• On 28 May clashes in the Emerald Triangle left one Cambodian soldier dead and both sides blamed each other.
• On 12 June Cambodia announced it would stop relying on Thai electricity and internet due to "threats" and blocked certain Thai imports.
• On 15 June Thai Prime Minister Paetongtarn Shinawatra phoned former Cambodian leader Hun Sen to discuss tensions.
• On 23 July a landmine blast injured five Thai soldiers near Chong An Ma point, prompting Thailand to recall its ambassador and close several border checkpoints.
• On 24 July heavy clashes, including use of heavy weapons and air attacks, caused further escalation and Cambodia recalled diplomatic staff.
• Both governments later expressed a desire to de-escalate despite the renewed hostilities.

Retaliatory Measures and Political Fallout

• Thailand imposed strict border restrictions and limited crossings to essential traffic.
• Cambodia banned Thai media, halted fruit and vegetable imports and cut Thai electricity and internet services as retaliatory steps.
• Political tensions in Thailand intensified amid the crisis and a leaked phone call fuelled domestic controversy.

Phone Call Controversy and Domestic Politics

• Paetongtarn's governing coalition was already fragile after the 2023 elections and was seen as a coalition of convenience to block the Move Forward Party.
• A leaked 15 June phone call in which Paetongtarn criticised a top general and called Hun Sen "uncle" provoked public outrage and allegations of undue deference.
• The leak intensified suspicions that the Shinawatra family might compromise national interests for personal or political advantage.
• Paetongtarn then launched a political offensive accusing Cambodia of harbouring cyber scam centres and enabling transnational crime.
• On 19 June Deputy PM Prasert Jantararuangtong claimed Cambodia's scam networks generated up to US$12.5 billion annually, a figure that drew wide attention.
• On 1 July Thailand's Constitutional Court suspended Prime Minister Paetongtarn from office pending investigation related to the leaked call; the court voted 7-2 for suspension.
• During suspension she retained her parliamentary seat but was barred from exercising prime ministerial functions.
• The King approved a cabinet reshuffle to stabilise government, and Paetongtarn was reassigned as Culture Minister.
• Hun Sen remains influential in Cambodia as President of the Senate despite no longer being Prime Minister, adding weight to the controversy.

Three Temple Sites at the Centre of the Dispute

• Prasat Ta Muen is a Mahayana Buddhist site built as a dharamshala by King Jayavarman VII and features a tall laterite tower and carved lintels.
• Prasat Ta Muen Tot, 340 metres from Prasat Ta Muen, was built in the 13th century as one of 102 hospitals or shrines commissioned by Jayavarman VII and includes a square prasat, library and Khmer inscriptions.
• Prasat Ta Muen Thom, the main and oldest shrine, was built in the 12th century as a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva and contains a Shiva lingam, libraries, corridors and a pool; its location near the disputed border makes visiting subject to military advisories.

Prime Minister's Visit to Trinidad and Tobago

Visit Overview

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi made an official visit to the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago from 3 to 4 July 2025 at the invitation of Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar.
• The visit was the first bilateral visit by an Indian Prime Minister in 26 years and coincided with the 180th anniversary of the arrival of Indian immigrants to the islands in 1845.

About Trinidad and Tobago

• Trinidad and Tobago is a small Caribbean island state with a population of about 1.36 million, nearly half of whom trace their origins to India.
• The country comprises the main islands of Trinidad and Tobago and several smaller islets.
• Trinidad lies close to South America and is separated from Venezuela by the Gulf of Paria.
• Tobago is smaller, about 115 square miles, and lies northeast of Trinidad.
• Little Tobago, once home to the greater bird of paradise outside New Guinea, no longer hosts the species.
• Trinidad and Tobago gained independence from the UK in 1962 and became a republic in 1976; its capital is Port of Spain.

Historical India-Trinidad Links

• After abolition of slavery, indentured labourers from India were brought to Trinidad from 1845 onwards to work on plantations.
• The first ship, Fatel Razack, arrived on 30 May 1845 with 225 Indian indentured labourers.
• Indentured labour was often exploitative, with agents promising better lives in India but withholding wages to bind workers to plantations.
• Migrants, called girmitiyas from the word "agreement", mostly came from present-day eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• This migration continued until 1917 and created a large Indian diaspora now constituting about 40-45% of the population.
• The Indian diaspora has achieved substantial political and economic integration, illustrated by Indian-origin leaders such as President Christine Kangaloo and Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar.

Significance of the Visit

• Trinidad and Tobago's strategic location and energy resources make it an important gateway for India's engagement with the Caribbean.
• A 1997 Trade Agreement grants Most Favoured Nation status to both countries, supporting trade expansion.
• India exports vehicles, iron and steel, pharmaceuticals and plastics to Trinidad and Tobago; imports focus on mineral fuels and petroleum products.
• India's development cooperation includes the HALT project and agricultural machinery initiatives and annual ITEC civilian training slots for Trinidad and Tobago.
• These initiatives illustrate India's South-South cooperation and long-term human resource development support in the Caribbean.

Key Outcomes of the Visit

• PM Modi received the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the country's highest national honour.
• Both leaders discussed bilateral, regional and global issues and signed agreements and MoUs in pharmaceuticals, development cooperation, academia, cultural exchange, diplomatic training and sports.
• They condemned terrorism and reaffirmed opposition to violent extremism.
• They welcomed outcomes of the 2nd India-CARICOM Summit (November 2024) and committed to speed up implementation of agreed initiatives.

Digital Cooperation and Aid

• Trinidad and Tobago became the first Caribbean country to adopt India's Unified Payments Interface (UPI).
• Both countries agreed to explore collaboration on India Stack solutions including DigiLocker, e-Sign and GeM.
• PM Modi announced donation of 2,000 laptops to support Trinidad and Tobago's flagship education programme.

Food Security, Medicine and Climate

• India gifted agro-machinery worth US$1 million for food processing and storage to NAMDEVCO.
• India offered assistance in natural farming, seaweed-based fertilisers and millet cultivation.
• India donated haemodialysis units, sea ambulances and announced a prosthetic limb fitment camp for 800 people.
• Trinidad and Tobago joined the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and the Global Biofuel Alliance.
• India offered a grant for a rooftop photovoltaic system for the Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs headquarters.

Cultural and Diaspora Links

• PM Modi announced training for a cohort of Pundits from Trinidad and Tobago who will participate in India's Geeta Mahotsav.
• An MoU renewed the bilateral Programme of Cultural Exchanges for 2025-28, including visits of Steel Pan artistes to India.
• PM Modi addressed the Indian diaspora in Port of Spain and referenced notable persons of Indian origin such as Dr Rudranath Capildeo, Sundar Popo and Daren Ganga.
• He also recalled Sewdass Sadhu, an indentured labourer credited with building the Sewdass Sadhu Shiva Mandir or "Temple in the Sea".

Other Commitments

• India announced the issuance of Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) cards up to the sixth generation for the Trinidad and Tobago Indian diaspora.
• Trinidad and Tobago reaffirmed support for India's bid for permanent membership of an expanded UN Security Council.
• They agreed reciprocal support for non-permanent UNSC candidatures: Trinidad and Tobago for 2027-28 and India for 2028-29.

India-CARICOM Ties

About CARICOM and Diplomatic Links

• CARICOM, the Caribbean Community and Common Market, was established on 4 July 1973 by the Treaty of Chaguaramas.
• It has 15 full members and several associate members including Anguilla, Bermuda and the Cayman Islands.
• The High Commissioner of India in Georgetown is also accredited as Ambassador to CARICOM, headquartered in Georgetown.
• India has pursued relations with CARICOM as a group in addition to bilateral ties with Caribbean states.

Engagement History

• A CARICOM delegation led by Hon. K.D. Knight visited India in November 2003, leading to an agreement for a Standing Joint Commission on Consultation, Cooperation and Coordination.
• The first India-CARICOM Foreign Ministers meeting followed in 2005 in Paramaribo and subsequent ministerial meetings took place in 2015 and 2017 on the margins of the UNGA.