CBSE Class 7 > Class 7 Notes > Social Science - New NCERT ( Part 1 and Part 2) > Cheat Sheet: 6Th To 10Th Centuries
Cheat Sheet: 6Th To 10Th Centuries
1. Overview
1.1 Period and main features
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Period | 6th-10th centuries CE |
| Post-Gupta transition | Large unified empires gave way to several strong regional kingdoms |
| Duration until about 1200 CE | This phase lasted until about 1200 CE and is called 'post-classical' or 'early medieval' |
| Kannauj (strategic importance) | Important due to location on the Ganga and control over trade routes |
1.2 Key terms and concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| sāmanta | Vassal who managed local administration and armies |
| dvārapaṇḍita | 'Scholar gatekeeper' who tested students before admission |
| Mahārājādhirāja | Title meaning 'Great King of Kings' |
| aspṛiśhya | Term indicating discrimination against certain communities |
| Jāti | Social group often based on occupation or region |
| Bhakti Movement | Religious movement from the 6th century emphasising devotion across social divisions |
| Tantric traditions | Traditions emerging around the 6th century emphasising rituals and Shakti worship |
2. Major Dynasties, Rulers, and Regions
2.1 Harṣha (Harṣhavardhana)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Harṣhavardhana | Became king in 606 CE at Kannauj; belonged to the Puṣhyabhūti (Vardhana) dynasty; earlier capital Sthāneśhvara (Thanesar) |
| Title and rule | Called Mahārājādhirāja and expanded over large parts of northern and eastern India |
| Literary patronage | Poet and dramatist who wrote three Sanskrit plays and patronised Bāṇabhaṭṭa |
| Bāṇabhaṭṭa | Author of Kādambarī and Harṣhacharita |
| Religious policy | Devoted to Śiva and Buddhism and respected all beliefs |
| Prayāga assembly | Held an assembly every five years at Prayāga where he gave away wealth |
| Xuanzang | Chinese pilgrim who visited India between 630-644 CE, brought back over 600 Buddhist manuscripts, and was welcomed by Harṣha at a grand assembly |
2.2 Tripartite Struggle
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Tripartite Struggle | Conflict for control of Kannauj after Harṣha's death in 647 CE during the 8th-9th centuries |
2.3 The Pālas
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Gopāla | Chosen by the people in 750 CE to restore stability in Bengal and founder of the Pāla dynasty |
| Dharmapāla | Successor who expanded the empire over much of eastern and northern India |
| Religious patronage | Patrons of Mahāyāna Buddhism |
| Vikramaśhilā | Monastery and university in Bihar (late 8th century) with six colleges, monasteries, temples, lecture halls, a vast library, and ties with Tibet |
| Nālandā | University patronised by the Pālas |
| Somapura | Monastery founded in present-day Bangladesh |
| Vikramaśhilā administration | Nearly 3,000 scholars studied there and each college had a dvārapaṇḍita |
| Destruction | Vikramaśhilā destroyed by Bakhtiyār Khiljī in the 12th century |
| Trade | Empire flourished through internal trade and maritime trade with Southeast Asia via east-coast seaports |
2.4 The Gurjara-Pratīhāras
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Nāgabhaṭa I | Founder in the mid-8th century |
| Origin and capitals | Originated from western India; early capital Bhillamāla (Bhinmal); later capital Ujjayinī |
| Military role | Famous for pushing back Arab invasions into northwest India |
| King Bhoja | 9th-century ruler also known as 'Mihira' and 'Ādi Varāha', devotee of Viṣhṇu, built an empire from Punjab to Kannauj |
| Decline | Dynasty declined after destruction of Kannauj by Rāṣhṭrakūṭas and was finally eliminated by Ghaznavids in the early 11th century |
2.5 The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Dantidurga | First independent Rāṣhṭrakūṭa ruler in the mid-8th century who overthrew the Chālukyas in the Deccan |
| Capital | Mānyakheṭa (modern Malkheda, Karnataka) |
| Duration | Remained dominant for nearly two centuries |
| Krishna I | Built the Kailaśhanātha temple at Ellora, the largest rock-cut temple in India |
| Cultural policy | Patronised Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain schools and encouraged learning in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada |
| Amoghavarṣha I | 9th-century ruler called Nṛipatunga, ruled 64 years, drawn to Jainism, patronised Hindu temples, and wrote in Sanskrit and Kannada |
| Al-Masūdī | Arab historian who praised Amoghavarṣha I for respecting Muslims and building mosques |
3. Kashmir and Northern Regions
3.1 Kashmir
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Emergence | Mid-8th century emergence as an important Himalayan kingdom |
| Lalitāditya Muktāpīda | Powerful mid-8th-century ruler of Kashmir |
| Internal conflicts | Kashmir experienced many internal conflicts after Lalitāditya |
| Diddā | Queen in the late 10th century who founded towns, built temples, and restored others |
| Kalhaṇa | Scholar-poet who wrote Rājatarangiṇī in the 12th century |
| Rājatarangiṇī | 'River of Kings' narrating Kashmir's dynastic history using inscriptions and records |
| Kalhaṇa's approach | Believed historians should be free from love or hatred and aimed to draw moral lessons from history |
3.2 Kashmir - cultural importance (chronological points)
- 1351-1450: Kashmir remained well connected to India's political and cultural life.
- 1453-1528: Kashmir was a major centre of Sanskrit learning, philosophy, and the arts.
- 1531-1607: Kashmir Śhaivism developed with scholars like Abhinavagupta.
- 1610-1703: Abhinavagupta's works influenced philosophy, aesthetics, poetry, and arts across India.
- 1706-1802: Kashmir acted as a bridge for Buddhist scholarship between India, Tibet, and Central Asia.
- 1805-1899: Kashmiri artisans, sculptors, and manuscript painters were highly valued across regions.
4. Deccan and Southern Kingdoms
4.1 The Chālukyas
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Pulakeśhin I | Founder of the Chālukya dynasty in the mid-6th century CE |
| Pulakeśhin II | Grandson who greatly expanded the Chālukya kingdom and checked Harṣha's southward expansion |
| Capitals and monuments | Capital Vātāpi (Badami) famed for Hindu and Jain cave temples; Āryapura (Aihole) contains numerous temples |
| Ravikīrti inscription | Sanskrit inscription praising Pulakeśhin II's victories though containing exaggerations |
| Decline and revival | Pulakeśhin II was later defeated by the Pallavas; by mid-8th century Rāṣhṭrakūṭas replaced the Chālukyas; later revival as Western Chālukyas of Kalyāṇī from the 10th century onward |
| Eastern Chālukyas | Ruled independently from Vengi (present-day Andhra Pradesh), fought and allied frequently with Rāṣhṭrakūṭas, and encouraged Telugu and Kannada literature |
4.2 The Pallavas
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Peak period | Reached peak in the 7th century with capital Kānchī (Kanchipuram) |
| Mahendravarman I | Reached peak of Pallava power; author of a satirical Sanskrit play |
| Narasimhavarman I | Also called 'Mamalla' meaning 'wrestler' or 'warrior'; defeated Pulakeśhin II and captured Badami |
| Naval and foreign policy | Sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka to help a Sinhalese prince |
| Trade and economy | Kanchipuram was a cultural and economic centre trading spices, textiles (including silk), ivory, and luxury goods; seaport Māmallapuram connected with Southeast Asia |
| Foreign coins | Ancient Chinese, Persian, and Roman coins found during excavations |
| Xuanzang on Kānchī | Mentioned 100 Buddhist monasteries with 10,000 priests, 80 Hindu temples, and many Jains in Kānchī |
| Cultural achievements | Built rock-cut and monolithic temples at Māmallapuram depicting deities and Mahābhārata scenes and patronised Sanskrit and Tamil literature; poets like Daṇḍin flourished |
| End of Pallava rule | Ended in the late 9th century with Aditya I's conquest |
4.3 Further south: Pāṇḍyas, Cheras, Cholas
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Pāṇḍyas | Rose to power by the 6th century with Madurai as capital; controlled southern Tamil Nadu and briefly northern Sri Lanka; engaged in maritime trade via Korkai; built temples and patronised Tamil literature; defeated by Cholas in the 10th century but later revived |
| Cheras | Also known as Chera Perumals; ruled along the Kerala coast and maintained independence |
| Cholas | Revived under Vijayālaya in the 9th century with Tanjāvūr as capital; Aditya I defeated the Pallavas and expanded the kingdom; built a vast empire noted for efficient administration, a strong navy, grand temples, and patronage of art and literature |
| Chola prosperity | Prosperity supported by the fertile Kāveri delta and good irrigation |
5. Polity, Economy, Society, and Culture
5.1 Polity and administration
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Political fragmentation | Large empires broke into smaller, decentralised kingdoms |
| Rule structure | Kings ruled core areas directly and outer regions through sāmantas (vassals) |
| Sāmanta instability | Sāmantas managed local administration and armies but could rebel or overthrow overlords |
| Territorial divisions | Territories divided into provinces, districts, and villages |
| Village autonomy | Villages were largely self-governed by local officials and committees |
| Village assemblies | By the 9th-10th centuries, village assemblies became important in south India; Chola inscriptions at Uttaramerur show early democratic traditions |
5.2 Trade, economy, and urbanisation
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Land grant system | Expanded and created powerful landholders |
| Peasant exploitation | Many landholders did not cultivate land themselves, leading to peasant exploitation |
| Land grants and cultivation | Land grants helped bring new land under cultivation |
| Irrigation works | Irrigation expanded; Pallava tanks in Tamil Nadu still survive |
| Agricultural growth | Supported cash crops and agro-based crafts |
| Trade networks | Local and long-distance trade flourished with West Asia, Africa, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and China |
| Foreign merchants | Christian, Muslim, and Jewish foreign traders lived in India |
| Urban-rural balance | Society remained mainly rural and agrarian although many cities flourished as political, religious, and trade centres |
| Role of temples and ports | Temples and ports played a major role in urban economic life |
5.3 Social life
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Complexity of society | Society became more complex with increasing numbers of jātis |
| Jāti characteristics | Jātis often based on occupation or region and practised endogamy |
| Absorption | Some tribes, migrants, and occupational groups were absorbed into the varṇa-jāti system |
| Regional variation | System varied by region and was flexible |
| Social mobility | Some rulers, like the Pālas and Kākatīyas, rose from Śhūdra to Kṣhatriya status |
| Interdependence | Different jātis depended on one another economically |
| Women's status | Varied by region; sources show women active in work, courts, and religious donations |
5.4 Cultural life
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Religious patronage | Rulers patronised Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions |
| Religious coexistence | Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism shared ideas, spaces, and artistic forms and coexisted peacefully |
| Buddhism under Pālas | Buddhism flourished in eastern India under the Pālas but declined elsewhere |
| Jainism | Remained strong in western India and Karnataka |
| Purāṇas | Integrated local beliefs into pan-Indian Hindu traditions |
| Religion and institutions | Religion increasingly centred on temples, maṭhas, pilgrimage, and bhakti |
| Bhakti leaders | Ālvārs (Viṣhṇu devotees) and Nāyanārs (Śhiva devotees) led the movement in the South |
| Bhakti effect | Bhakti cut across social divisions, including caste and gender |
6. Science, Learning, and Foreign Contacts
6.1 Mathematicians and astronomers
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Brahmagupta | 598 CE scholar who explained operations with zero, negative numbers, fractions and laid foundations of algebra in the Brahmasphutasiddhānta |
| Brahmasphutasiddhānta | Treatise explaining zero, negative numbers, fractions, and algebraic methods |
| Transmission | Brahmagupta's works translated into Persian and Latin influencing the Arab world and Europe |
| Bhāskara I | Advanced trigonometry and commented on the Āryabhaṭīya |
| Virahānka | Identified the Virahānka-Fibonacci sequence |
| Mahāvīra | Jain scholar who wrote the first mathematics text independent of astronomy |
| Astronomical advances | Scholars refined calculations to predict planetary positions and eclipses |
6.2 Foreign invasions and relations
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Hūṇas | Nomadic warriors from Central Asia who weakened the Gupta Empire but failed to establish lasting control |
| Hūṇa invasions | Early 6th-century Hūṇa leaders invaded the Ganga plains and were defeated by the Aulikara kings of Daśhapura (Mandsaur) |
| Assimilation | After defeat the Hūṇas were assimilated into Indian society adopting Indian languages, symbols, and religious imagery |
| Arab raids | Arab naval raids began on India's western coast in the 7th century |
| Muhammad bin Qasim | Conquered Sindh in the early 8th century |
| King Dāhar of Sindh | Defeated and killed during Muhammad bin Qasim's conquest |
| Arab control | Arab control beyond Sindh was short-lived; expansion largely failed due to strong resistance and Arab rule in India remained limited |
| Nāgabhaṭa I (military) | Of the Gurjara-Pratīhāras defeated Arab forces |
| Religious freedom in Sindh | In Sindh Hindus and Buddhists were allowed religious freedom under Arab rule |
| India-Arab relations | Long-standing trade links before Islam; trade spread goods, ideas, and culture across the Arabian Sea |
7. Taking Stock
7.1 Summary points
- Era marked by rise and fall of many dynasties with most kingdoms short-lived and territorially limited.
- Period characterised by regional consolidation and social and political transformation.
- Integration of new social and political groups into society occurred.
- Sanskrit and regional literatures flourished while temple architecture and sculpture advanced.
- New philosophical schools and religious practices spread, and India showed resilience against foreign invasions.
- Continuity existed alongside significant change in Indian civilisation during this period.
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