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Cheat Sheet: Climate Change & Sustainability
1. International Framework on Climate Change
1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1992
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Adoption | Rio Earth Summit, 1992; entered into force on 21 March 1994 |
| Objective | Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system |
| Key Principle | Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) - recognizes different capabilities and responsibilities of developed and developing countries |
| Annexes | Annex I: Developed countries with emission reduction commitments; Annex II: Developed countries providing financial and technical assistance; Non-Annex I: Developing countries |
| Institutions | Conference of Parties (COP) - supreme decision-making body; Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA); Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) |
1.2 Kyoto Protocol, 1997
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Adoption & Entry | Adopted in December 1997; entered into force on 16 February 2005 |
| Binding Commitments | Legally binding emission reduction targets for Annex I countries; 5.2% reduction below 1990 levels during 2008-2012 (First Commitment Period) |
| Greenhouse Gases Covered | CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, HFCs, PFCs, SF₆ |
| Flexible Mechanisms | Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI), Emissions Trading |
| Doha Amendment, 2012 | Second Commitment Period (2013-2020); added NF₃ as seventh greenhouse gas; not entered into force due to insufficient ratifications |
1.2.1 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
- Allows Annex I countries to implement emission reduction projects in developing countries
- Generates Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) - each equivalent to one tonne of CO₂
- Dual objective: emission reduction and sustainable development in host countries
- CDM Executive Board supervises mechanism
1.3 Paris Agreement, 2015
| Element | Details |
|---|---|
| Adoption & Entry | Adopted on 12 December 2015 at COP 21; entered into force on 4 November 2016 |
| Central Goal | Limit global temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit increase to 1.5°C |
| Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) | Each country submits voluntary emission reduction targets; to be updated every 5 years with progressively ambitious targets |
| Universality | Applies to all countries (developed and developing), replacing Annex-based differentiation |
| Climate Finance | Developed countries to provide financial resources to assist developing countries; USD 100 billion per year by 2020 (extended to 2025) |
| Loss and Damage | Addresses loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change (Article 8); Warsaw International Mechanism |
| Global Stocktake | Review of collective progress every 5 years starting 2023 |
| Transparency Framework | Enhanced transparency framework for action and support under Article 13 |
1.4 Key COP Decisions
| COP | Significant Outcomes |
|---|---|
| COP 7 (Marrakesh, 2001) | Marrakesh Accords - detailed rules for Kyoto Protocol implementation; established Adaptation Fund, Least Developed Countries Fund |
| COP 13 (Bali, 2007) | Bali Action Plan - launched negotiations for post-2012 framework |
| COP 15 (Copenhagen, 2009) | Copenhagen Accord - recognized 2°C limit; USD 100 billion climate finance commitment |
| COP 17 (Durban, 2011) | Durban Platform - agreed to develop new protocol applicable to all parties by 2015 |
| COP 24 (Katowice, 2018) | Katowice Rulebook - implementation guidelines for Paris Agreement |
| COP 26 (Glasgow, 2021) | Glasgow Climate Pact - coal phase-down commitment; Article 6 rulebook on carbon markets; loss and damage dialogue |
| COP 27 (Sharm el-Sheikh, 2022) | Established Loss and Damage Fund for vulnerable countries |
| COP 28 (Dubai, 2023) | First Global Stocktake completed; commitment to transition away from fossil fuels; operationalization of Loss and Damage Fund |
2. Indian Legal Framework on Climate Change
2.1 Constitutional Provisions
| Provision | Relevance to Climate Change |
|---|---|
| Article 21 | Right to Life includes right to clean environment and protection from climate change impacts |
| Article 48A | Directive Principle - State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife |
| Article 51A(g) | Fundamental Duty - to protect and improve natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife |
| Entry 13, List I (Union List) | Participation in international conferences, conventions and their implementation |
| Entry 17A, List III (Concurrent List) | Forests; protection of wild animals and birds |
2.2 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008
| Mission | Key Objectives |
|---|---|
| 1. National Solar Mission | Target 100 GW solar power by 2022 (later achieved); promote solar energy for grid and off-grid applications |
| 2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency | Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme; energy efficiency standards; fiscal instruments |
| 3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat | Energy efficiency in buildings; waste management; sustainable urban transport |
| 4. National Water Mission | 20% improvement in water use efficiency; optimal water pricing; water conservation |
| 5. National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem | Conserve biodiversity; protect Himalayan glaciers; traditional knowledge systems |
| 6. National Mission for Green India | Increase forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares; improve quality of forest cover on another 5 million hectares |
| 7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture | Climate-resilient crops; soil health management; efficient water use in agriculture |
| 8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change | Research and development; climate science; capacity building; international cooperation |
2.3 India's Climate Commitments
2.3.1 Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
- First NDC (2015): Reduce emission intensity of GDP by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 levels; achieve 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030; create additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent through additional forest cover
- Updated NDC (2022): Reduce emission intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels; achieve 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030; create additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent by 2030
- Net-zero target announced: 2070
2.3.2 Panchamrit Strategy (COP 26, 2021)
- Reach 500 GW non-fossil energy capacity by 2030
- 50% of energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030
- Reduce total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes by 2030
- Reduce carbon intensity of economy by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels
- Achieve net-zero by 2070
2.4 Key Indian Legislation
| Legislation | Climate Relevance |
|---|---|
| Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 | Umbrella legislation; enables rules for emission standards, environmental quality standards |
| Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 | Control of air pollution including greenhouse gas emissions from industries |
| Energy Conservation Act, 2001 | Promotes energy efficiency; establishes Bureau of Energy Efficiency; PAT scheme; energy conservation building codes |
| Electricity Act, 2003 | Promotes renewable energy; renewable purchase obligations for distribution licensees |
| Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 | Protects forests as carbon sinks; regulates diversion of forest land |
| Biological Diversity Act, 2002 | Conservation of biodiversity threatened by climate change |
2.5 State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC)
- Mandated for all states to prepare action plans aligned with NAPCC
- Address state-specific vulnerabilities and adaptation needs
- Sectors covered: agriculture, water, forestry, health, urban development, transport, energy
- 32 states and Union Territories have prepared SAPCCs
3. Sustainable Development Framework
3.1 Concept and Evolution
| Term | Definition/Significance |
|---|---|
| Sustainable Development | Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland Report, 1987) |
| Three Pillars | Economic development, social development, environmental protection |
| Intergenerational Equity | Present generation's obligation to preserve resources and environment for future generations |
| Intragenerational Equity | Fair distribution of resources and environmental quality among present generation |
3.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 2015
- Adopted by UN in September 2015 as part of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
- 17 Goals with 169 targets to be achieved by 2030
- Replaced Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
3.2.1 Climate-Relevant SDGs
| SDG | Focus Area |
|---|---|
| Goal 7 | Affordable and Clean Energy - ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy |
| Goal 11 | Sustainable Cities and Communities - make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable |
| Goal 12 | Responsible Consumption and Production - ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns |
| Goal 13 | Climate Action - take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts |
| Goal 14 | Life Below Water - conserve and sustainably use oceans, seas and marine resources |
| Goal 15 | Life on Land - protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems; combat desertification |
3.3 Principles of Sustainable Development in Environmental Law
3.3.1 Precautionary Principle
- Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation
- Recognized in Rio Declaration, Principle 15 (1992)
- Burden of proof shifts to project proponent to demonstrate safety
- Applied in Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996) - Supreme Court recognized as part of environmental law
- Applied in A.P. Pollution Control Board v. M.V. Nayudu (1999)
3.3.2 Polluter Pays Principle
- Person responsible for pollution must bear costs of pollution control and remediation
- Recognized in Rio Declaration, Principle 16 (1992)
- Liability includes cost of reversing damage and restoration
- Applied in Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996) - polluting industries directed to pay compensation
- Applied in M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak case, 1987) - absolute liability for hazardous activities
3.3.3 Public Trust Doctrine
- Natural resources are held by State as trustee for public use and cannot be alienated
- State has duty to protect natural resources for present and future generations
- Applied in M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1997) - regarding Span Motel encroachment on Beas River
- Covers resources like air, water, forests, seashore
3.3.4 Intergenerational Equity
- Each generation holds earth in common with present and future generations as trustee
- Recognized in M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Taj Trapezium case)
- Applied in T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India (ongoing forest case)
3.3.5 Sustainable Development Principle
- Balance between development and environmental protection
- Applied in Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996) - reconciling development with environment
- Not to stop development but ensure ecologically sustainable development
4. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
4.1 Mitigation Strategies
| Strategy | Description |
|---|---|
| Renewable Energy | Solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, geothermal energy; reduces fossil fuel dependence; India's target: 500 GW by 2030 |
| Energy Efficiency | Reduced energy consumption through improved technologies; PAT scheme for energy-intensive industries; UJALA scheme for LED distribution |
| Afforestation and Reforestation | Enhance carbon sinks; National Mission for Green India targets 10 million hectares; REDD+ mechanism |
| Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) | Capture CO₂ emissions from industrial sources and store underground |
| Sustainable Transport | Public transport promotion; electric vehicles; FAME scheme (Faster Adoption of Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles); BS-VI emission norms |
| Industrial Emission Control | Emission standards; cleaner production technologies; PAT scheme |
4.2 Adaptation Strategies
| Sector | Adaptation Measures |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Climate-resilient crop varieties; crop diversification; improved irrigation; soil health management; National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture |
| Water Resources | Rainwater harvesting; watershed management; aquifer recharge; efficient irrigation; National Water Mission targets 20% efficiency improvement |
| Coastal Areas | Coastal zone regulation; mangrove conservation; early warning systems for cyclones; Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019 |
| Urban Areas | Climate-resilient infrastructure; green buildings; urban forestry; sustainable waste management; National Mission on Sustainable Habitat |
| Health | Disease surveillance; vector control; heat action plans; access to healthcare |
| Ecosystems | Protected area networks; biodiversity conservation; ecosystem restoration; National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem |
4.3 Carbon Markets and Trading Mechanisms
4.3.1 Article 6 of Paris Agreement
- Article 6.2: Cooperative approaches through Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs)
- Article 6.4: New mechanism replacing CDM - centralized crediting mechanism
- Article 6.8: Non-market approaches for mitigation and adaptation
- Rulebook finalized at COP 26 (Glasgow, 2021)
4.3.2 Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme, India
- Launched under Energy Conservation Act, 2001 and National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
- Mandatory energy efficiency trading mechanism for energy-intensive industries
- Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts) issued to over-achievers; can be traded
- Covers sectors: thermal power, cement, iron and steel, fertilizer, aluminum, textiles, pulp and paper, chlor-alkali
- PAT Cycle I (2012-15), Cycle II (2016-19), Cycle III ongoing
4.4 Climate Finance
| Fund/Mechanism | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Green Climate Fund (GCF) | Established under UNFCCC; assists developing countries in mitigation and adaptation; operationalized in 2015 |
| Adaptation Fund | Finances adaptation projects in developing countries; funded by 2% levy on CDM projects |
| Global Environment Facility (GEF) | Financial mechanism for environmental conventions including UNFCCC |
| Loss and Damage Fund | Established at COP 27 (2022); operationalized at COP 28 (2023); assists vulnerable countries facing climate-induced loss and damage |
| National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC), India | Established 2015; assists state-level adaptation projects in sectors vulnerable to climate change |
| National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF), India | Merged with Compensatory Afforestation Fund; financed through cess on coal; supports renewable energy and clean energy projects |
5. Judicial Pronouncements on Climate Change
5.1 Indian Supreme Court Decisions
| Case | Key Principles/Directions |
|---|---|
| M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Taj Trapezium case, 1996-ongoing) | Protection of Taj Mahal from air pollution; closure of polluting industries; CNG mandate for vehicles; use of cleaner fuels |
| Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996) | Recognized precautionary principle and polluter pays principle as part of Indian environmental law; sustainable development to be balanced |
| M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Vehicular Pollution case, 1998-2002) | Phasing out old commercial vehicles in Delhi; introduction of CNG in public transport; Euro emission norms |
| T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India (1996-ongoing) | Forest conservation; regulated mining; prohibition on tree felling; compensatory afforestation; forest definition includes all forests irrespective of ownership |
| M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1997) | Public trust doctrine applied; State's duty to protect natural resources; Span Motel's encroachment on Beas River declared illegal |
| Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996) | Polluter pays principle; chemical industries causing land and water pollution directed to pay compensation and remediation costs |
| A.P. Pollution Control Board v. M.V. Nayudu (1999) | Detailed application of precautionary principle; burden of proof on project proponent |
| Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000) | Environmental impact assessment necessary; rehabilitation of displaced persons; sustainable development balancing |
| M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak case, 1987) | Absolute and strict liability for hazardous industries; no exceptions; compensation must be correlated to magnitude and capacity of enterprise |
5.2 National Green Tribunal (NGT) Decisions
| Case | Outcome |
|---|---|
| Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2015) | Questioned adequacy of India's climate actions; directed Ministry of Environment to file affidavit on climate change measures |
| M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Bhalswa Landfill Fire, 2022) | Directed closure of landfill sites in Delhi emitting greenhouse gases; scientific waste management mandated |
| Society for Protection of Culture, Environment, Heritage & Tourism v. Union of India (2014) | Directed preparation of disaster management plans considering climate change impacts |
5.3 International Judicial Developments
- Urgenda Foundation v. State of Netherlands (2019) - Dutch Supreme Court ordered government to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 25% by 2020 from 1990 levels
- Leghari v. Federation of Pakistan (2015) - Pakistan High Court held government's delay in implementing climate framework violated fundamental rights
- Juliana v. United States (ongoing) - Youth climate lawsuit claiming constitutional right to stable climate system
- Massachusetts v. EPA (2007) - US Supreme Court ruled CO₂ is air pollutant under Clean Air Act; EPA must regulate if it endangers public health
6. Institutional Framework
6.1 International Institutions
| Institution | Role |
|---|---|
| Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) | Established 1988 by UNEP and WMO; assesses scientific information on climate change; publishes Assessment Reports (AR1-AR6) |
| United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) | Coordinates UN environmental activities; hosts climate change secretariats; emissions gap reports |
| Global Environment Facility (GEF) | Financial mechanism for multilateral environmental agreements including UNFCCC |
| International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) | Promotes adoption of renewable energy; established 2009 |
| International Solar Alliance (ISA) | Initiated by India and France at COP 21; headquarters in Gurugram, India; promotes solar energy in member countries |
6.2 Indian Institutions
| Institution | Functions |
|---|---|
| Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) | Nodal ministry for climate change; implements NAPCC; UNFCCC national focal point |
| National Green Tribunal (NGT) | Established under NGT Act, 2010; adjudicates environmental disputes including climate-related matters; principal bench in Delhi |
| Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) | Monitors air and water quality; emission standards; coordinates with State Pollution Control Boards |
| Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) | Established under Energy Conservation Act, 2001; implements PAT scheme; energy labeling; capacity building |
| Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) | Weather monitoring; climate data collection; early warning systems |
| Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) | Forestry research; climate change impact on forests; carbon sequestration studies |
| National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) | Disaster risk reduction including climate-induced disasters; established under Disaster Management Act, 2005 |
| Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) | Think tank on energy and climate policy; research and analysis |
6.3 Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change
- Established in 2007; chaired by Prime Minister
- Coordinates national action on climate change assessment, adaptation and mitigation
- Reviews NAPCC implementation
- Members include relevant ministers, scientists, and industry representatives
7. Sectoral Climate Issues
7.1 Renewable Energy
| Source | Key Details |
|---|---|
| Solar Energy | India's installed capacity exceeded 70 GW (as of 2023); National Solar Mission target: 100 GW by 2022 (achieved); PM-KUSUM scheme for solar pumps; solar parks |
| Wind Energy | Fourth largest installed wind capacity globally; over 42 GW installed; Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra leading states |
| Hydroelectric | Over 46 GW capacity; small hydro projects (up to 25 MW) classified as renewable; Himalayan region potential |
| Biomass and Biofuel | Biomass power plants; National Biofuel Policy, 2018; 20% ethanol blending target by 2025 |
| Green Hydrogen | National Green Hydrogen Mission launched 2023; target 5 MMT production by 2030 |
7.2 Forest and REDD+
- REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) - mechanism under UNFCCC
- Provides financial incentives for reducing deforestation and enhancing forest carbon stocks
- India's forest cover: 21.71% of geographical area (State of Forest Report 2021)
- Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016 - establishes fund for afforestation activities
- National Afforestation Programme; Green India Mission
7.3 Electric Vehicles (EVs)
- FAME-I (2015-2019) and FAME-II (2019-2024) schemes
- Subsidies for EV purchase; charging infrastructure development
- National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020 - targets 6-7 million EVs by 2020
- Battery swapping policy announced 2022
- Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for advanced chemistry cell (ACC) battery storage
7.4 Waste Management
| Type | Climate Linkage |
|---|---|
| Solid Waste | Landfills emit methane; Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016; waste-to-energy plants; segregation at source mandated |
| Plastic Waste | Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016; Extended Producer Responsibility; single-use plastic ban from July 2022 |
| E-waste | E-Waste Management Rules, 2016; hazardous emissions during disposal; recycling mandates |
| Biomedical Waste | Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016; incineration emissions; proper treatment protocols |
7.5 Coastal and Marine Environment
- India's coastline: 7,517 km; vulnerable to sea-level rise
- Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019 - regulates activities in coastal areas
- CRZ-I: Ecologically sensitive areas; CRZ-II: Developed areas; CRZ-III: Relatively undisturbed areas; CRZ-IV: Territorial waters and EEZ
- National Coastal Mission; Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) project
- Mangrove conservation - carbon sequestration; coastal protection
7.6 Agriculture and Food Security
- Agriculture contributes approximately 14% of India's GHG emissions
- Climate-Smart Agriculture - increasing productivity while reducing emissions
- National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture - climate-resilient varieties; soil health cards
- Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana - crop insurance against climate risks
- Per Drop More Crop scheme - micro-irrigation for water efficiency
8. Emerging Issues and Challenges
8.1 Climate Justice
- Disproportionate impact of climate change on vulnerable populations
- Developed countries' historical emissions vs. developing countries' adaptation burden
- Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) principle
- Right to development for developing countries
- Loss and Damage compensation for climate-vulnerable nations
8.2 Climate-Induced Migration
- Environmental refugees not recognized under international refugee law (1951 Refugee Convention)
- Internal displacement due to extreme weather events, sea-level rise, desertification
- Coastal areas in India vulnerable; Sundarbans, Mumbai, Chennai at risk
- No specific legal framework for climate migrants in India
8.3 Climate Change and Human Rights
- Right to life, health, food, water, housing affected by climate change
- UN Human Rights Council Resolution 48/13 (2021) recognized human right to clean, healthy and sustainable environment
- Children's rights particularly affected - intergenerational impacts
- Indigenous communities' traditional knowledge and rights
8.4 Just Transition
- Ensuring transition to low-carbon economy does not adversely affect workers and communities
- Coal-dependent regions and workers require support
- Retraining and alternative livelihood programs
- Social protection measures during energy transition
8.5 Corporate Climate Responsibility
| Mechanism | Details |
|---|---|
| Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting (BRSR) | Mandatory from FY 2022-23 for top 1,000 listed companies; disclosures on environmental, social, governance parameters including GHG emissions |
| Carbon Disclosure | Voluntary reporting of carbon footprint; Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) |
| Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG) | ESG criteria for investments; sustainable finance; green bonds |
| Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) | 2% of net profit under Section 135, Companies Act, 2013; can be used for environmental sustainability projects |
8.6 Technology Transfer and Intellectual Property
- TRIPS Agreement vs. climate technology access for developing countries
- Compulsory licensing for green technologies debated
- Technology Mechanism under UNFCCC - Technology Executive Committee (TEC) and Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN)
- Patent pools and voluntary licensing for clean technologies
8.7 Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
- Proposed by European Union; carbon tax on imports from countries with lower carbon pricing
- Implementation from 2026; transitional phase 2023-2025
- Covers cement, iron, steel, aluminum, fertilizer, electricity, hydrogen sectors
- Concerns about compatibility with WTO rules; impact on developing countries' exports
- India's opposition citing violation of CBDR principle
8.8 Geoengineering
- Deliberate large-scale intervention in Earth's climate system
- Solar Radiation Management (SRM) - reflecting sunlight back to space
- Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) - removing CO₂ from atmosphere
- Ethical, legal concerns; no international regulation framework
- Convention on Biological Diversity moratorium on geoengineering (2010)
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