NEET PG Exam > NEET PG Notes > Medicine > CheatSheet: Tumors
CheatSheet: Tumors
1. Basic Tumor Biology
1.1 Definitions
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Neoplasia | Abnormal, uncontrolled cell growth that persists after initiating stimulus is removed |
| Benign Tumor | Well-differentiated, slow-growing, localized mass without metastatic potential |
| Malignant Tumor | Poorly differentiated, rapidly growing mass with invasion and metastatic capability |
| Anaplasia | Loss of cellular differentiation and structure, hallmark of malignancy |
| Metaplasia | Reversible replacement of one adult cell type with another |
| Dysplasia | Disordered cellular growth with loss of uniformity and architecture |
| Carcinoma in situ | Dysplastic cells confined to epithelium without basement membrane invasion |
1.2 Characteristics Comparison
| Feature | Benign |
|---|---|
| Growth rate | Slow, progressive |
| Differentiation | Well-differentiated |
| Mitoses | Rare, normal |
| Margins | Well-defined, encapsulated |
| Invasion | Absent, expansile growth |
| Metastasis | Never |
| Recurrence | Rare after excision |
| Necrosis | Absent |
| Feature | Malignant |
|---|---|
| Growth rate | Rapid, erratic |
| Differentiation | Poorly differentiated |
| Mitoses | Numerous, atypical |
| Margins | Irregular, infiltrative |
| Invasion | Present |
| Metastasis | Common |
| Recurrence | Common after excision |
| Necrosis | Common |
2. Tumor Nomenclature
2.1 Benign Tumors
| Cell Type | Benign Tumor Name |
|---|---|
| Epithelial (glandular) | Adenoma |
| Epithelial (squamous) | Papilloma |
| Fibrous tissue | Fibroma |
| Cartilage | Chondroma |
| Bone | Osteoma |
| Fat | Lipoma |
| Smooth muscle | Leiomyoma |
| Striated muscle | Rhabdomyoma |
| Blood vessels | Hemangioma |
| Lymph vessels | Lymphangioma |
| Nerve sheath | Schwannoma, Neurofibroma |
2.2 Malignant Tumors
| Cell Type | Malignant Tumor Name |
|---|---|
| Epithelial (glandular) | Adenocarcinoma |
| Epithelial (squamous) | Squamous cell carcinoma |
| Fibrous tissue | Fibrosarcoma |
| Cartilage | Chondrosarcoma |
| Bone | Osteosarcoma |
| Fat | Liposarcoma |
| Smooth muscle | Leiomyosarcoma |
| Striated muscle | Rhabdomyosarcoma |
| Blood vessels | Angiosarcoma |
| Hematopoietic cells | Leukemia, Lymphoma |
2.3 Special Nomenclature
- Hamartoma: benign, disorganized mass of tissue indigenous to the site
- Choristoma: benign, normal tissue in abnormal location
- Teratoma: tumor from totipotent germ cells containing multiple tissue types
- Mixed tumor: contains two cell types (e.g., pleomorphic adenoma of salivary gland)
- Carcinoma: malignant epithelial tumor
- Sarcoma: malignant mesenchymal tumor
3. Tumor Growth and Spread
3.1 Cell Cycle and Growth Kinetics
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Doubling time | Time required for tumor to double in volume |
| Growth fraction | Proportion of cells in replicative pool |
| Cell cycle time | Time for cell to complete one division cycle |
| Tumor angiogenesis | Formation of new blood vessels to supply growing tumor mass |
- Tumor growth is initially exponential, then slows with increasing size
- Gompertzian growth kinetics: growth rate decreases as tumor enlarges
- Chemotherapy most effective against rapidly dividing cells
3.2 Local Invasion
- Malignant cells invade through basement membrane and ECM
- Mechanisms: loss of E-cadherin, increased motility, protease secretion (MMPs, cathepsins)
- Benign tumors expand but do not invade
- Perineural invasion: tumor growth along nerve sheaths
3.3 Metastasis Routes
| Route | Details |
|---|---|
| Lymphatic | Carcinomas predominantly; follows lymph node drainage; sentinel node concept |
| Hematogenous | Sarcomas predominantly; arterial or venous; liver and lungs common sites |
| Transcoelomic | Seeding across peritoneal, pleural, pericardial cavities |
| Transplantation | Iatrogenic seeding during surgery or procedures |
3.4 Metastatic Cascade
- Detachment from primary tumor
- Invasion of ECM and basement membrane
- Intravasation into blood/lymph vessels
- Survival in circulation (evasion of immune system)
- Arrest in distant capillary bed
- Extravasation into tissue
- Colonization and growth at secondary site
3.5 Common Metastatic Patterns
| Primary Tumor | Common Metastatic Sites |
|---|---|
| Lung | Brain, bone, liver, adrenals, contralateral lung |
| Breast | Bone, lung, liver, brain |
| Prostate | Bone (osteoblastic), lymph nodes |
| Colorectal | Liver, lung, peritoneum |
| Stomach | Liver, ovary (Krukenberg), peritoneum |
| Kidney | Lung, bone, liver, brain |
| Thyroid | Lung, bone |
| Melanoma | Widespread: lung, liver, brain, skin |
4. Molecular Basis of Cancer
4.1 Oncogenes
| Oncogene | Associated Tumor/Mechanism |
|---|---|
| RAS | Pancreatic, colorectal, lung cancer; GTPase signaling |
| MYC | Burkitt lymphoma; transcription factor |
| HER2/NEU (ERBB2) | Breast, ovarian cancer; growth factor receptor |
| BCR-ABL | CML; tyrosine kinase (Philadelphia chromosome) |
| BCL2 | Follicular lymphoma; anti-apoptotic |
| RET | MEN 2A/2B, medullary thyroid cancer |
| BRAF | Melanoma, papillary thyroid cancer; MAPK pathway |
- Proto-oncogenes: normal genes that promote cell growth
- Oncogenes: mutated/overexpressed proto-oncogenes driving cancer
- Activation: point mutation, amplification, translocation
- Dominant: single mutant allele sufficient for effect
4.2 Tumor Suppressor Genes
| Gene | Associated Tumor/Function |
|---|---|
| TP53 | Most common mutation in cancer; cell cycle arrest, apoptosis ("guardian of genome") |
| RB | Retinoblastoma, osteosarcoma; cell cycle regulation (G1/S checkpoint) |
| APC | Familial adenomatous polyposis, colorectal cancer; Wnt pathway |
| BRCA1/BRCA2 | Breast, ovarian cancer; DNA repair |
| NF1 | Neurofibromatosis type 1; RAS inhibitor |
| NF2 | Neurofibromatosis type 2; bilateral acoustic schwannomas |
| VHL | Von Hippel-Lindau; renal cell carcinoma, hemangioblastoma |
| WT1 | Wilms tumor; transcription factor |
| PTEN | Breast, endometrial, prostate cancer; PI3K/AKT pathway inhibitor |
- Require "two-hit" hypothesis: both alleles must be inactivated (Knudson hypothesis)
- Recessive: loss of both copies needed for cancer phenotype
- Germline mutation increases cancer susceptibility
4.3 Hallmarks of Cancer
- Sustained proliferative signaling
- Evading growth suppressors
- Resisting cell death (apoptosis)
- Enabling replicative immortality (telomerase activation)
- Inducing angiogenesis
- Activating invasion and metastasis
- Genome instability and mutation
- Tumor-promoting inflammation
- Deregulating cellular energetics (Warburg effect)
- Avoiding immune destruction
4.4 DNA Repair Defects
| Repair System | Associated Syndrome/Cancer |
|---|---|
| Mismatch repair (MMR) | Lynch syndrome (HNPCC); colorectal, endometrial cancer; microsatellite instability |
| Nucleotide excision repair | Xeroderma pigmentosum; skin cancer |
| Base excision repair | MUTYH-associated polyposis |
| Homologous recombination | BRCA1/2 mutations; breast, ovarian cancer |
5. Carcinogenesis
5.1 Chemical Carcinogens
| Carcinogen | Associated Cancer |
|---|---|
| Aflatoxin B1 | Hepatocellular carcinoma |
| Asbestos | Mesothelioma, lung cancer |
| Arsenic | Skin, lung, liver cancer |
| Benzene | Acute myeloid leukemia |
| Vinyl chloride | Hepatic angiosarcoma |
| Naphthylamine | Bladder cancer |
| Nitrosamines | Gastric cancer |
| Polycyclic hydrocarbons | Lung, skin cancer |
| Alkylating agents | Leukemia, lymphoma |
- Direct acting: do not require metabolic conversion
- Indirect acting (procarcinogens): require metabolic activation by cytochrome P450
- Initiation: DNA damage (irreversible)
- Promotion: clonal expansion of initiated cells (reversible)
- Progression: additional mutations leading to malignancy
5.2 Radiation Carcinogenesis
| Type | Associated Cancer |
|---|---|
| Ionizing radiation | Leukemia, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, bone sarcoma |
| UV radiation | Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma |
- Radiation causes DNA breaks and chromosomal aberrations
- Latency period: 5-10 years for leukemia, 20+ years for solid tumors
- Atomic bomb survivors: increased thyroid cancer, leukemia
5.3 Viral Carcinogens
| Virus | Associated Cancer |
|---|---|
| EBV | Burkitt lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, PTLD |
| HPV (16, 18) | Cervical, anal, oropharyngeal cancer; E6 (inhibits p53), E7 (inhibits Rb) |
| HBV | Hepatocellular carcinoma |
| HCV | Hepatocellular carcinoma |
| HTLV-1 | Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma |
| HHV-8 (KSHV) | Kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma |
| HIV | Indirectly: Kaposi sarcoma, NHL, cervical cancer |
5.4 Microbial Carcinogens
| Organism | Associated Cancer |
|---|---|
| Helicobacter pylori | Gastric adenocarcinoma, MALT lymphoma |
| Schistosoma haematobium | Bladder squamous cell carcinoma |
| Clonorchis sinensis | Cholangiocarcinoma |
| Opisthorchis viverrini | Cholangiocarcinoma |
6. Tumor Immunology
6.1 Tumor Antigens
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Tumor-specific antigens | Mutated oncogenes (RAS, p53), viral antigens (HPV E6/E7) |
| Tumor-associated antigens | Overexpressed normal proteins (HER2, PSA, CEA, AFP) |
| Cancer-testis antigens | MAGE, NY-ESO-1 |
| Differentiation antigens | Tyrosinase (melanoma), CD20 (B-cell lymphoma) |
6.2 Immune Surveillance and Evasion
- Immune surveillance: immune system recognizes and destroys tumor cells
- Effector cells: CD8+ T cells, NK cells, macrophages
- Tumor immune evasion mechanisms:
- Loss of MHC class I expression
- Production of immunosuppressive factors (TGF-β, IL-10)
- Expression of immune checkpoint molecules (PD-L1, CTLA-4)
- Recruitment of regulatory T cells
- Antigen masking or loss
6.3 Immunotherapy
- Checkpoint inhibitors: anti-PD-1, anti-PD-L1, anti-CTLA-4
- CAR-T cell therapy: engineered T cells targeting tumor antigens
- Monoclonal antibodies: rituximab (CD20), trastuzumab (HER2), cetuximab (EGFR)
- Cancer vaccines: sipuleucel-T (prostate cancer)
- Cytokines: IL-2, IFN-α
7. Tumor Markers
7.1 Commonly Used Tumor Markers
| Marker | Associated Tumor/Use |
|---|---|
| AFP (Alpha-fetoprotein) | Hepatocellular carcinoma, nonseminomatous germ cell tumors (yolk sac) |
| CEA (Carcinoembryonic antigen) | Colorectal, pancreatic, gastric cancer; monitoring recurrence |
| CA 19-9 | Pancreatic, biliary tract cancer |
| CA 125 | Ovarian cancer (epithelial) |
| CA 15-3 | Breast cancer (monitoring) |
| PSA (Prostate-specific antigen) | Prostate cancer screening and monitoring |
| β-hCG | Choriocarcinoma, testicular cancer (seminoma, nonseminomatous) |
| Calcitonin | Medullary thyroid carcinoma |
| Chromogranin A | Neuroendocrine tumors, carcinoid |
| LDH | Germ cell tumors, lymphoma; prognostic marker |
| S100 | Melanoma, neural tumors, Langerhans cell histiocytosis |
| Thyroglobulin | Differentiated thyroid cancer (monitoring after thyroidectomy) |
| Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) | Small cell lung cancer, neuroblastoma |
7.2 Immunohistochemistry Markers
| Marker | Tumor Type |
|---|---|
| Cytokeratin | Epithelial tumors (carcinomas) |
| Vimentin | Mesenchymal tumors (sarcomas) |
| Desmin | Muscle tumors (rhabdomyosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma) |
| GFAP | Astrocytoma, glioblastoma |
| CD20 | B-cell lymphomas |
| CD3 | T-cell lymphomas |
| CD15, CD30 | Hodgkin lymphoma (Reed-Sternberg cells) |
| TTF-1 | Lung adenocarcinoma, thyroid cancer |
| ER/PR | Breast cancer (prognostic and therapeutic) |
| HER2 | Breast, gastric cancer |
8. Grading and Staging
8.1 Tumor Grading
- Grade: degree of differentiation and aggressiveness
- Based on: cellular atypia, mitotic rate, necrosis, architecture
- Grading systems:
- Grade 1 (G1): Well-differentiated
- Grade 2 (G2): Moderately differentiated
- Grade 3 (G3): Poorly differentiated
- Grade 4 (G4): Undifferentiated/anaplastic
- Higher grade = worse prognosis
8.2 TNM Staging System
| Component | Description |
|---|---|
| T (Tumor) | Size and extent of primary tumor (T0-T4) |
| N (Nodes) | Regional lymph node involvement (N0-N3) |
| M (Metastasis) | Distant metastasis (M0 or M1) |
| Tis | Carcinoma in situ |
| T0 | No evidence of primary tumor |
| T1-T4 | Increasing size/local extension of primary tumor |
| N0 | No regional lymph node metastasis |
| N1-N3 | Increasing involvement of regional lymph nodes |
| M0 | No distant metastasis |
| M1 | Distant metastasis present |
- TNM converted to stage groupings (Stage 0-IV)
- Stage 0: Carcinoma in situ
- Stage I-II: Localized disease
- Stage III: Regional spread
- Stage IV: Distant metastasis
8.3 Other Staging Systems
- Ann Arbor staging: lymphomas (Stages I-IV based on nodal involvement)
- FIGO staging: gynecological cancers
- Dukes staging: colorectal cancer (A-D)
- Child-Pugh: hepatocellular carcinoma (assesses liver function)
- BCLC: hepatocellular carcinoma (Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer)
9. Paraneoplastic Syndromes
9.1 Endocrine Syndromes
| Syndrome | Hormone/Mediator |
|---|---|
| Cushing syndrome | ACTH (small cell lung cancer, carcinoid, pancreatic islet cell) |
| SIADH | ADH (small cell lung cancer) |
| Hypercalcemia | PTHrP (squamous cell lung, renal, breast, bladder cancer) |
| Hypoglycemia | Insulin-like growth factors (hepatocellular, mesothelioma, sarcoma) |
| Polycythemia | Erythropoietin (renal cell carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, cerebellar hemangioblastoma) |
| Carcinoid syndrome | Serotonin, bradykinin (carcinoid tumors with liver metastases) |
9.2 Neurological Syndromes
| Syndrome | Associated Cancer |
|---|---|
| Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome | Small cell lung cancer (anti-VGCC antibodies) |
| Myasthenia gravis | Thymoma (anti-acetylcholine receptor antibodies) |
| Cerebellar degeneration | Small cell lung, ovarian, breast cancer (anti-Yo, anti-Hu antibodies) |
| Peripheral neuropathy | Lung cancer, myeloma |
| Encephalomyelitis | Small cell lung cancer (anti-Hu antibodies) |
9.3 Hematological Syndromes
- Thrombocytosis: lung, gastric, ovarian cancer
- Eosinophilia: lymphomas, lung cancer
- Leukemoid reaction: gastric, lung cancer
- Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia: gastric adenocarcinoma
- Red cell aplasia: thymoma
9.4 Other Syndromes
| Syndrome | Associated Cancer |
|---|---|
| Acanthosis nigricans | Gastric adenocarcinoma, lung cancer |
| Dermatomyositis | Lung, ovarian, gastric cancer |
| Trousseau syndrome | Migratory thrombophlebitis (pancreatic, lung, gastric cancer) |
| Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy | Lung cancer (clubbing, periostitis) |
| Nephrotic syndrome | Hodgkin lymphoma, lung, colon cancer |
10. Cancer Treatment Principles
10.1 Treatment Modalities
| Modality | Indications/Notes |
|---|---|
| Surgery | Primary treatment for solid tumors; curative if localized, debulking if advanced |
| Radiation therapy | External beam or brachytherapy; curative or palliative; radiosensitive tumors |
| Chemotherapy | Systemic therapy; curative for some (testicular, leukemia); adjuvant/neoadjuvant |
| Targeted therapy | Molecular targets (HER2, EGFR, BCR-ABL); fewer side effects |
| Immunotherapy | Checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T, monoclonal antibodies |
| Hormone therapy | Breast (ER+), prostate cancer (androgen deprivation) |
10.2 Chemotherapy Categories
| Class | Mechanism |
|---|---|
| Alkylating agents | DNA cross-linking (cyclophosphamide, cisplatin) |
| Antimetabolites | Inhibit nucleotide synthesis (methotrexate, 5-FU, gemcitabine) |
| Topoisomerase inhibitors | Prevent DNA unwinding (etoposide, irinotecan, doxorubicin) |
| Antimicrotubule agents | Disrupt mitotic spindle (vincristine, paclitaxel) |
| Antibiotics | DNA intercalation (doxorubicin, bleomycin) |
10.3 Targeted Therapies
| Drug | Target/Indication |
|---|---|
| Imatinib | BCR-ABL (CML), c-KIT (GIST) |
| Trastuzumab | HER2 (breast, gastric cancer) |
| Rituximab | CD20 (B-cell lymphomas) |
| Cetuximab | EGFR (colorectal, head and neck cancer) |
| Bevacizumab | VEGF (colorectal, lung, renal cancer) |
| Vemurafenib | BRAF V600E (melanoma) |
| Erlotinib | EGFR (NSCLC, pancreatic cancer) |
10.4 Common Side Effects
- Myelosuppression: neutropenia, anemia, thrombocytopenia (most chemotherapy)
- Mucositis: methotrexate, 5-FU
- Cardiotoxicity: doxorubicin, trastuzumab
- Pulmonary fibrosis: bleomycin
- Nephrotoxicity: cisplatin
- Hemorrhagic cystitis: cyclophosphamide (prevented by mesna)
- Peripheral neuropathy: vincristine, paclitaxel, cisplatin
- Hand-foot syndrome: capecitabine, 5-FU
11. Specific Tumor Types
11.1 Lung Cancer
| Type | Features |
|---|---|
| Adenocarcinoma | Most common, peripheral, nonsmokers, EGFR/ALK mutations |
| Squamous cell | Central, cavitation, hypercalcemia (PTHrP), smokers |
| Small cell | Central, neuroendocrine, SIADH, Cushing, Lambert-Eaton, extensive stage at diagnosis |
| Large cell | Peripheral, poorly differentiated, diagnosis of exclusion |
- Pancoast tumor: superior sulcus, Horner syndrome, brachial plexus invasion
- Superior vena cava syndrome: small cell, lymphoma
11.2 Breast Cancer
- Most common: invasive ductal carcinoma (70-80%)
- Invasive lobular carcinoma: bilateral, diffuse growth
- DCIS: ductal carcinoma in situ, high risk for invasive carcinoma
- Inflammatory breast cancer: poor prognosis, peau d'orange
- Paget disease: eczematous nipple changes, underlying DCIS/invasive cancer
- Prognostic markers: ER, PR, HER2, Ki-67
- Molecular subtypes: Luminal A/B, HER2-enriched, triple-negative (basal-like)
11.3 Gastrointestinal Tumors
| Cancer | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Esophageal adenocarcinoma | Distal, Barrett esophagus, GERD, Western countries |
| Esophageal squamous cell | Upper/middle, smoking, alcohol, achalasia, developing countries |
| Gastric adenocarcinoma | H. pylori, intestinal vs. diffuse (signet ring), Virchow node, Krukenberg tumor |
| Colorectal cancer | APC mutation, adenoma-carcinoma sequence, left-sided (obstructive), right-sided (anemia) |
| Pancreatic adenocarcinoma | Head (jaundice, Courvoisier sign), body/tail (late presentation), CA 19-9 |
| Hepatocellular carcinoma | Cirrhosis, HBV/HCV, aflatoxin, AFP elevation |
11.4 Genitourinary Tumors
| Cancer | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Renal cell carcinoma | Clear cell (most common), VHL, hematuria, flank pain, mass, paraneoplastic syndromes |
| Bladder cancer | Transitional cell (urothelial), smoking, painless hematuria, schistosomiasis (squamous) |
| Prostate cancer | Adenocarcinoma, peripheral zone, PSA, Gleason score, bone metastases (osteoblastic) |
| Testicular cancer | Seminoma (radiosensitive, AFP negative) vs. nonseminomatous (AFP/β-hCG positive) |
11.5 Gynecological Tumors
| Cancer | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Cervical cancer | Squamous (HPV 16/18), adenocarcinoma, Pap smear screening |
| Endometrial cancer | Adenocarcinoma, estrogen excess, postmenopausal bleeding, Lynch syndrome |
| Ovarian cancer | Epithelial (serous, mucinous), CA 125, BRCA1/2, ascites, peritoneal spread |
| Choriocarcinoma | Gestational trophoblastic disease, β-hCG markedly elevated, metastasizes to lung |
11.6 CNS Tumors
| Tumor | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Glioblastoma multiforme | Grade IV astrocytoma, adults, pseudopalisading necrosis, poor prognosis |
| Meningioma | Benign, adults, psammoma bodies, resectable |
| Medulloblastoma | Children, cerebellum, Homer-Wright rosettes, CSF spread |
| Oligodendroglioma | Frontal lobe, "fried egg" cells, calcifications, 1p/19q deletion |
| Schwannoma | CN VIII (acoustic neuroma), bilateral in NF2 |
11.7 Hematological Malignancies
| Type | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Acute myeloid leukemia | Auer rods, MPO positive, t(15;17) in APL (ATRA treatment) |
| Acute lymphoblastic leukemia | Children, TdT positive, mediastinal mass (T-cell), CNS prophylaxis needed |
| Chronic myeloid leukemia | Philadelphia chromosome t(9;22), BCR-ABL, imatinib |
| Chronic lymphocytic leukemia | Elderly, smudge cells, Richter transformation, autoimmune hemolysis |
| Hodgkin lymphoma | Reed-Sternberg cells (CD15+, CD30+), bimodal age, B symptoms |
| Non-Hodgkin lymphoma | Diffuse large B-cell (most common aggressive), follicular (indolent, t(14;18)) |
| Multiple myeloma | Plasma cells, CRAB criteria, M-spike, Bence Jones protein, lytic bone lesions |
11.8 Skin Tumors
| Type | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Basal cell carcinoma | Most common skin cancer, pearly borders, rarely metastasizes |
| Squamous cell carcinoma | UV exposure, actinic keratosis precursor, can metastasize |
| Melanoma | ABCDE criteria, vertical growth phase (poor prognosis), BRAF mutation, sentinel node biopsy |
12. Pediatric Tumors
12.1 Common Pediatric Malignancies
| Tumor | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Neuroblastoma | Adrenal/sympathetic chain, N-MYC amplification, HVA/VMA elevated, calcifications |
| Wilms tumor | Nephroblastoma, age 2-5 years, WAGR syndrome, favorable prognosis |
| Retinoblastoma | RB gene mutation, leukocoria, familial/sporadic, good prognosis with treatment |
| Ewing sarcoma | Diaphyseal long bones, t(11;22), onion-skin periosteal reaction, small blue round cells |
| Osteosarcoma | Metaphysis of long bones, adolescents, Codman triangle, sunburst pattern |
| Medulloblastoma | Posterior fossa, children, drop metastases via CSF |
13. Prognostic Factors
13.1 General Prognostic Indicators
- Stage at diagnosis (most important)
- Tumor grade and histological type
- Lymph node involvement
- Presence of metastasis
- Tumor size
- Surgical resectability
- Performance status (ECOG, Karnofsky)
- Age and comorbidities
- Response to treatment
13.2 Molecular Prognostic Markers
| Marker | Prognostic Significance |
|---|---|
| ER/PR positive | Better prognosis in breast cancer, hormone therapy responsive |
| HER2 amplification | Worse prognosis without treatment, trastuzumab responsive |
| EGFR mutation | Better response to TKIs in NSCLC |
| ALK rearrangement | Younger nonsmokers, crizotinib responsive |
| KRAS mutation | Worse prognosis, anti-EGFR therapy resistance in colorectal cancer |
| N-MYC amplification | Poor prognosis in neuroblastoma |
| 1p/19q co-deletion | Better prognosis in oligodendroglioma |
| IDH mutation | Better prognosis in gliomas |
About this Document
4.65/5 Rating
Apr 26, 2026 Last updated
Related Exams
Document Description: CheatSheet: Tumors for NEET PG 2026 is part of Medicine preparation. The notes and questions for CheatSheet: Tumors have been prepared according to the NEET PG exam syllabus. Information about CheatSheet: Tumors covers topics like and CheatSheet: Tumors Example, for NEET PG 2026 Exam. Find important definitions, questions, notes, meanings, examples, exercises and tests below for CheatSheet: Tumors.
Description
CheatSheet: Tumors of Medicine to help you remember important concepts with short tricks. Start learning for NEET PG exam & improve retention with EduRev.
Information about CheatSheet: Tumors
In this doc you can find the meaning of CheatSheet: Tumors defined & explained in the simplest way possible. Besides explaining types of CheatSheet: Tumors theory, EduRev gives you an ample number of questions to practice CheatSheet: Tumors tests, examples and also practice NEET PG tests
Related Searches
practice quizzes, Sample Paper, Free, video lectures, CheatSheet: Tumors, ppt, pdf , CheatSheet: Tumors, Semester Notes, Exam, Summary, Important questions, Objective type Questions, MCQs, past year papers, Previous Year Questions with Solutions, CheatSheet: Tumors, Extra Questions, mock tests for examination, Viva Questions, study material, shortcuts and tricks;