Cheatsheet: Political Processes in India

1. Electoral System and Processes

1.1 Constitutional Framework

1.2 Election Commission of India

1.3 Electoral Systems

1.3.1 First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

• Used for Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies
• Candidate with highest votes wins; simple majority not required
• Single-member constituencies
• Advantages: Simple, stable governments, direct accountability
• Disadvantages: Vote-seat disproportionality, wasted votes

1.3.2 Proportional Representation

1.4 Delimitation

• Delimitation Commission Act 1952, 1962, 1972, 2002
• Frozen until 2026 (42nd Amendment 1976, extended by 84th and 87th Amendments)
• Based on Census data
• Composition: Retired Supreme Court judge (Chair), CEC, State Election Commissioners
• Orders have force of law; not subject to judicial review

1.5 Reservation of Seats

2. Political Parties

2.1 Recognition and Classification

2.2 Major National Parties (Post-2014)

• Indian National Congress (INC) - founded 1885, symbol: Hand
• Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) - founded 1980, symbol: Lotus
• Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M) - founded 1964, symbol: Hammer-Sickle-Star
• Communist Party of India (CPI) - founded 1925, symbol: Ears of Corn and Sickle
• Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) - founded 1984, symbol: Elephant
• Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) - founded 1999, symbol: Clock

2.3 Anti-Defection Law

2.4 Election Symbols

• Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968
• Reserved symbols for national and state parties
• Free symbols for registered unrecognized parties and independents
• Disputes resolved by ECI

3. Party System Evolution

3.1 Congress Dominance (1952-1967)

• Single-party dominance; Congress won first three general elections with absolute majority
• 1952: Congress 364/489 Lok Sabha seats
• 1957: Congress 371/494 seats
• 1962: Congress 361/494 seats
• Opposition fragmented among socialist, communist, and Hindu nationalist parties

3.2 Coalition Era (1967 onwards)

3.2.1 State-Level Coalitions (1967)

• 1967 Fourth General Election marked end of Congress monopoly
• Non-Congress coalition governments in several states (Samyukta Vidhayak Dal)
• Congress lost power in 8 states

3.2.2 National-Level Coalitions

3.3 Regional Parties

• Emerged strongly post-1967
• DMK/AIADMK in Tamil Nadu
• Shiv Sena in Maharashtra
• Akali Dal in Punjab
• Trinamool Congress in West Bengal
• Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh
• Biju Janata Dal in Odisha
• Significance: Kingmakers in coalition politics

4. Electoral Reforms and Initiatives

4.1 NOTA (None of the Above)

• Introduced in 2013 following PUCL vs Union of India Supreme Court judgment
• Does not affect electoral outcome; symbolic vote of rejection
• Available in all elections since 2014

4.2 EVM and VVPAT

4.3 Electoral Bonds

• Introduced in Union Budget 2017, implemented 2018
• Allowed anonymous donations to political parties
• Denominations: ₹1,000 to ₹1 crore
• Struck down by Supreme Court in February 2024 as unconstitutional

4.4 Model Code of Conduct

• Comes into force from announcement of election dates
• Applies to political parties and candidates
• Key provisions: No misuse of official machinery, no communal appeals, no bribery, level playing field
• Not statutory; moral code enforced by ECI

4.5 Pending Reforms

• State funding of elections (Indrajit Gupta Committee, 1998)
• Inner-party democracy
• Right to recall
• Simultaneous elections (One Nation One Election)
• Criminalization of politics - candidates with serious criminal charges
• Electoral Reforms Bill proposals

5. Voting Behavior and Participation

5.1 Determinants of Voting

5.2 Voter Turnout Trends

• 1952: 45.7% (First General Election)
• 1962: 55.4%
• 1984: 64.1% (highest until 2014)
• 2014: 66.4%
• 2019: 67.4% (highest ever)
• Urban turnout lower than rural turnout
• Gender gap narrowing; women turnout exceeded men in some states

5.3 SVEEP Initiative

• Systematic Voters' Education and Electoral Participation
• Launched 2009 by Election Commission
• Aims: Increase voter registration and turnout, especially among marginalized groups

6. Representation of Peoples Act

6.1 RPA 1950

• Allocation of seats and delimitation of constituencies
• Preparation of electoral rolls
• Qualification of voters

6.2 RPA 1951

6.3 Corrupt Practices (Section 123)

• Bribery
• Undue influence
• Appeals on grounds of religion, race, caste, community, or language
• Promotion of enmity between classes
• Publication of false statements
• Hiring vehicles beyond permitted limit
• Incurring expenditure beyond ceiling

7. Electoral Disputes and Petitions

7.1 Election Petitions

• Filed in High Court (for Parliament and State Legislature elections)
• Article 329(b): Courts cannot question elections except through election petition
• Time limit: 45 days from result declaration
• Grounds: Corrupt practices, improper acceptance of nomination, improper rejection

7.2 Landmark Judgments

8. Federalism and Centre-State Relations

8.1 Governor's Role

8.2 President's Rule (Article 356)

• Imposed when constitutional machinery fails in state
• On Governor's report or otherwise
• Requires Parliamentary approval within 2 months
• Maximum duration: 3 years with repeated approvals
• S.R. Bommai case (1994): Judicial review permitted; floor test preferred
• Misused during Congress dominance and 1970s-1980s

8.3 Inter-State Council

• Article 263; established 1990 on Sarkaria Commission recommendation
• PM as Chairman; all CMs, Governors of UTs with legislatures, Union Ministers as members
• Investigates disputes, recommends policies for coordination

8.4 Zonal Councils

• Established 1956 by States Reorganisation Act
• Five zones: Northern, Central, Eastern, Western, Southern
• North-Eastern Council established 1971
• Advisory bodies for regional cooperation

9. Pressure Groups and Social Movements

9.1 Types of Pressure Groups

9.2 Social Movements

9.2.1 Environmental Movements

• Chipko Movement (1973) - forest conservation in Uttarakhand
• Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985) - anti-dam movement led by Medha Patkar
• Appiko Movement (1983) - forest conservation in Karnataka

9.2.2 Farmers' Movements

• Farmers' protests against agricultural laws (2020-2021)
• Kisan Long March movements
• Demands: MSP guarantee, loan waivers, land rights

9.2.3 Dalit Movements

• Republican Party of India
• Dalit Panthers (1972)
• BSP as political expression

9.2.4 Women's Movements

• Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
• Women's reservation movement (Lapsed 33% Bill)
• Anti-dowry and anti-rape campaigns

9.3 Civil Society Organizations

• NGOs in development, advocacy, service delivery
• Right to Information (RTI) movement - Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS)
• Anti-corruption movements - India Against Corruption (2011)

10. Decentralization and Local Governance

10.1 Panchayati Raj (73rd Amendment, 1992)

10.2 Urban Local Bodies (74th Amendment, 1992)

• 12th Schedule: 18 subjects for Municipalities
• One-third reservation for women
• SC/ST reservation proportionate to population

10.3 Committees on Decentralization

10.4 PESA Act 1996

• Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act
• Extends Panchayati Raj to Fifth Schedule Areas
• Gram Sabha given powers over natural resources, minor minerals, land alienation
• Safeguards tribal autonomy and customs

11. Contemporary Political Processes

11.1 Populism and Welfare Politics

• Loan waivers (farmers, students)
• Free power, water supply
• Cash transfers (PM-KISAN, state schemes)
• Freebies debate and fiscal implications

11.2 Identity Politics

11.3 Judicial Activism

• Public Interest Litigation (PIL) expansion
• Collegium system for judicial appointments
• Judicial overreach vs accountability debate
• NJAC struck down (2015)

11.4 Media and Politics

• 24x7 news channels and electoral coverage
• Social media in elections (Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp)
• Paid news and media ethics
• Digital campaigns and data analytics

11.5 Corruption and Anti-Corruption Measures

• 2G spectrum scam, Commonwealth Games scam, Coal allocation scam
• Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 (after Jan Lokpal movement)
• Central Vigilance Commission (CVC)
• Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 (amended 2018)
• Benami Transactions Act, 2016

12. Political Participation Beyond Elections

12.1 Right to Information Act 2005

• Fundamental Right under Article 19(1)(a)
• Central/State Information Commissions
• 30-day response time limit
• Exemptions under Section 8
• Empowerment tool for citizens

12.2 Referendums and Consultations

• No provision for national referendum in Constitution
• Gram Sabha consultations in Panchayati Raj
• Public consultations in policy-making

12.3 Protests and Agitations

• Constitutional right under Article 19(1)(a) and (b)
• Reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2)
• Bandhs and hartals - Supreme Court restrictions
• Digital protests and online activism