Foreign Policy: Nigerian Case

When you think about how Nigeria relates with other countries, what guides those decisions? That's what foreign policy is all about. This topic is very important in JAMB because questions often focus on Nigeria's foreign policy objectives, principles, and how we've applied them over the years. After studying this note, you'll be able to identify the key principles guiding Nigeria's foreign policy, explain specific policies like the Afrocentric policy and Economic Diplomacy, and understand the instruments Nigeria uses to achieve foreign policy goals. You'll also know important historical decisions Nigeria made on the international stage and why they matter in your exam.

Core Examination Concepts

1. Meaning of Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy refers to the strategies and decisions a country adopts to protect its national interests and guide its relationships with other countries. Simply put, it's how Nigeria decides to interact with the rest of the world - who to befriend, who to oppose, and what values to promote internationally.

National Interest includes things like protecting our territory, promoting economic development, ensuring security, and protecting Nigerians abroad. Think of it this way: everything Nigeria does internationally should benefit Nigerians in some way.

2. Objectives of Nigerian Foreign Policy

Nigeria's foreign policy aims to achieve specific goals. These objectives have remained fairly consistent since independence:

• Protection of national sovereignty and territorial integrity - keeping Nigeria safe from external threats
• Promotion and protection of Nigeria's economic interests - seeking trade deals, investments, and economic partnerships
• Promotion of African unity and solidarity - working to unite African countries
• Promotion of international peace and security - contributing to global stability
• Promotion of respect for human rights and dignity - standing against oppression globally
• Enhancement of Nigeria's image abroad - building a positive reputation
• Protection of the rights and welfare of Nigerians abroad - defending our citizens in other countries

Remember: JAMB loves to test whether you can identify which objective matches a particular Nigerian action. For example, Nigeria's peacekeeping in Liberia relates to promoting peace and African unity.

3. Principles of Nigerian Foreign Policy

These are the guiding rules Nigeria follows when making foreign policy decisions:

• Respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity of other nations - we don't interfere in other countries' internal affairs without justification
• Non-alignment - during the Cold War, Nigeria refused to permanently join either the Western or Eastern bloc, though this changed over time
• Promotion of African interests - Africa comes first in Nigeria's considerations
• Respect for international law and treaty obligations - Nigeria honors agreements it signs
• Reciprocity - treating other nations as they treat us
• Promotion of peaceful settlement of disputes - preferring dialogue to war
• Non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries - respecting other nations' right to self-determination

Remember: The principle of non-alignment was more prominent during the First Republic but became less strict later. Nigeria still maintains independence in foreign relations but has closer ties with Western nations now.

4. Phases/Eras of Nigerian Foreign Policy

First Republic (1960-1966)

Under Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa, Nigeria's foreign policy was characterized by:

• Cautious approach - careful and conservative in international commitments
• Anglo-Nigerian Defense Pact (1960) - signed but quickly abrogated (cancelled) in 1962 due to public pressure
• Commonwealth membership - maintaining ties with Britain and Commonwealth nations
• Support for decolonization - helping other African countries gain independence
• Opposition to apartheid in South Africa - though this was relatively mild compared to later periods

Gowon Era (1966-1975)

Under General Yakubu Gowon:

• Civil War diplomacy (1967-1970) - focused on preventing other nations from recognizing Biafra
• Formation of ECOWAS in 1975 - Nigeria was the driving force behind creating the Economic Community of West African States
• Increased support for African liberation movements - more active opposition to colonialism and apartheid
• Recognition of People's Republic of China instead of Taiwan

Murtala/Obasanjo Era (1975-1979)

Under General Murtala Mohammed and later General Olusegun Obasanjo:

• Radical and dynamic foreign policy - more assertive on the world stage
• Strong opposition to apartheid in South Africa - Nigeria nationalized British Petroleum (BP) assets in 1979 because Britain traded with apartheid South Africa
• Support for MPLA in Angola (1975) - Nigeria recognized the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola against Western-backed groups
• Leadership in African affairs - Nigeria became known as the "Giant of Africa"
• Hosting of FESTAC '77 - Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture in Lagos, showcasing African culture globally

Remember: This era is often called the golden age of Nigerian foreign policy because of Nigeria's boldness and continental leadership.

Second Republic (1979-1983)

Under President Shehu Shagari:

• Continuation of Afrocentric policy - Africa remained central to foreign policy
• Economic diplomacy emphasis - seeking economic benefits in foreign relations
• Continued opposition to apartheid
• Active participation in the OAU (Organisation of African Unity, now African Union)

Buhari/Idiagbon Era (1984-1985)

Under General Muhammadu Buhari:

• Retrenchment in foreign policy - pulling back on expensive foreign commitments due to economic crisis
• Bilateral economic agreements - focused on agreements that directly benefited Nigeria economically
• "Nigeria's business is Nigeria first" - a more inward-looking approach

Babangida Era (1985-1993)

Under General Ibrahim Babangida:

• Balance between Afrocentrism and economic diplomacy
• Nigeria joined the Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1986 - this was very controversial among Nigerian Christians
• Active peacekeeping role - Nigeria led ECOMOG (ECOWAS Monitoring Group) interventions in Liberia and Sierra Leone
• Concentric circle approach - prioritizing West Africa first, then Africa, then the developing world, then the rest of the world

Abacha Era (1993-1998)

Under General Sani Abacha:

• International isolation - Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth in 1995 after the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and 8 other Ogoni activists
• Human rights violations - damaged Nigeria's international reputation
• Continued ECOMOG operations - despite isolation, Nigeria maintained peacekeeping in Liberia and Sierra Leone
• Strained relations with Western countries

Abdulsalami Era (1998-1999)

Under General Abdulsalami Abubakar:

• Diplomatic fence-mending - repairing damaged relationships
• Transition to democracy - which improved Nigeria's international image
• Nigeria was readmitted to the Commonwealth in 1999

Obasanjo's Civilian Era (1999-2007)

Under President Olusegun Obasanjo:

• Shuttle diplomacy - Obasanjo traveled extensively to rebuild Nigeria's image
• Debt relief campaign - successfully negotiated cancellation of a large portion of Nigeria's foreign debt
• Conflict resolution in Africa - mediating in disputes across the continent
• NEPAD (New Partnership for Africa's Development) - Obasanjo was a founding member
• Bakassi Peninsula handover to Cameroon - following the International Court of Justice ruling

Yar'Adua Era (2007-2010)

Under President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua:

• Citizen diplomacy - focusing on how foreign policy benefits ordinary Nigerians
• Less interventionist approach in African conflicts
• Energy diplomacy - using Nigeria's oil and gas resources as diplomatic tools

Jonathan Era (2010-2015)

Under President Goodluck Jonathan:

• Economic diplomacy - attracting foreign investment
• Security cooperation - especially regarding Boko Haram insurgency
• Hosting of World Economic Forum on Africa (2014) in Abuja

Buhari's Second Coming (2015-2023)

Under President Muhammadu Buhari (civilian administration):

• Security and anti-corruption focus in foreign relations
• Economic recovery emphasis
• Border closure (2019-2020) - to combat smuggling, though controversial
• Active in regional security - fighting Boko Haram and other terrorist groups

5. Major Foreign Policy Postures/Approaches

Afrocentric Policy

Afrocentric policy means putting African interests at the center of Nigeria's foreign policy. In other words, Africa is our priority when making international decisions. This approach was most prominent from the Murtala/Obasanjo era through the Second Republic.

Characteristics of Afrocentric Policy:

• Championing the independence of African countries still under colonial rule
• Fighting against apartheid in South Africa and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)
• Providing financial and military support to African liberation movements
• Leading efforts for African unity through organizations like OAU and ECOWAS
• Prioritizing African issues over relations with distant powers

Examples:

• Nigeria's support for SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organisation) in Namibia
• Support for ANC (African National Congress) in South Africa
• Nigeria's role in creating ECOWAS in 1975
• Hosting many African liberation movements in Lagos

Economic Diplomacy

Economic Diplomacy means using foreign policy primarily to advance Nigeria's economic interests - seeking trade deals, investments, debt relief, and economic partnerships that benefit Nigeria materially.

This approach became prominent during the Buhari/Idiagbon era (1984-1985) due to economic hardship, and has remained important ever since.

Characteristics of Economic Diplomacy:

• Attracting foreign direct investment (FDI)
• Seeking debt relief and favorable loan terms
• Promoting Nigerian exports and businesses abroad
• Protecting Nigerian economic interests in international organizations
• Evaluating foreign policy decisions based on economic benefits

Examples:

• Obasanjo's debt relief negotiations that reduced Nigeria's debt significantly
• Trade agreements with China, USA, EU, and other countries
• Nigeria's membership in OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries)
• Bilateral trade commissions with various countries

Comparison of Afrocentric vs Economic Diplomacy

Remember: Modern Nigerian foreign policy tries to balance both approaches - maintaining African leadership while also securing economic benefits. This is called pragmatic foreign policy.

6. Instruments of Nigerian Foreign Policy

These are the tools Nigeria uses to implement its foreign policy:

Diplomacy

• Embassies and High Commissions - Nigeria maintains diplomatic missions in many countries
• Bilateral talks - direct negotiations between Nigeria and other countries
• Multilateral diplomacy - working through international organizations like UN, AU, ECOWAS
• Summit diplomacy - presidents and heads of state meeting directly

Economic Instruments

• Foreign aid - Nigeria has provided financial assistance to other African countries
• Trade agreements - bilateral and multilateral trade deals
• Economic sanctions - refusing to trade with certain countries (e.g., apartheid South Africa)
• Debt relief - writing off debts owed by poorer African countries

Military Instruments

• Peacekeeping operations - ECOMOG missions in Liberia, Sierra Leone, etc.
• Military cooperation - joint exercises and training with friendly nations
• Defense pacts - though Nigeria generally avoids permanent military alliances

Cultural and Educational Instruments

• Cultural exchanges - like FESTAC '77
• Educational scholarships - TAP (Technical Aid Corps) program sending Nigerian experts to other African countries
• Language and cultural centers - promoting Nigerian culture abroad

Propaganda and Information

• Voice of Nigeria (VON) - radio broadcasts to other countries
• Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) international service
• Public relations campaigns - improving Nigeria's image abroad

7. Nigeria's Membership in International Organizations

Nigeria belongs to many international organizations to advance its foreign policy objectives:

African Organizations

• African Union (AU) - formerly OAU; Nigeria was a founding member in 1963
• ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) - founded in 1975 with Nigeria as the driving force
• Lake Chad Basin Commission - for countries around Lake Chad
• Niger Basin Commission - managing the River Niger

Global Organizations

• United Nations (UN) - Nigeria joined in 1960 immediately after independence
• Commonwealth of Nations - member since independence; suspended 1995-1999 during Abacha era
• OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) - Nigeria joined in 1971
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) - though Nigeria's commitment has varied over time
• World Trade Organization (WTO) - promoting free trade
• Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) - Nigeria joined in 1986 under Babangida (controversial decision)

Remember: JAMB may ask why Nigeria joined specific organizations. For example, Nigeria joined OPEC to have influence over global oil prices and protect its oil revenues.

8. Major Foreign Policy Decisions and Actions

Abrogation of Anglo-Nigerian Defense Pact (1962)

The Anglo-Nigerian Defense Pact was signed in 1960 allowing Britain to maintain military bases in Nigeria and provide defense support. It was cancelled in 1962 due to:

• Public outcry that it compromised Nigeria's sovereignty
• Opposition from nationalist politicians and students
• Perception that it was a neo-colonial arrangement

Nationalization of BP (1979)

Nigeria nationalized British Petroleum (BP) assets in Nigeria in 1979 under Obasanjo because Britain continued trading with apartheid South Africa, violating Nigeria's principles.

Expulsion of Illegal Aliens (1983, 1985)

Nigeria expelled millions of West African migrants (mainly Ghanaians) in 1983 and 1985 due to:

• Economic recession
• High unemployment among Nigerians
• Security concerns

This was controversial as it seemed to contradict Nigeria's ECOWAS commitment to free movement.

ECOMOG Interventions

Nigeria led ECOMOG (ECOWAS Monitoring Group) peacekeeping missions:

• Liberia (1990-1998) - during Liberian civil war
• Sierra Leone (1997-2000) - restoring democracy and fighting RUF rebels
• Guinea-Bissau (1999) - brief intervention

Nigeria bore the largest burden in troops and funding for these missions.

Bakassi Peninsula Handover (2008)

After the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled in 2002 that the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula belonged to Cameroon, Nigeria handed it over in 2008 under President Yar'Adua. This showed Nigeria's commitment to peaceful dispute resolution and respect for international law, though it was unpopular domestically.

9. Challenges Facing Nigerian Foreign Policy

• Economic constraints - limited resources restrict what Nigeria can do internationally
• Domestic problems - insecurity, corruption, poverty affect Nigeria's international image
• Policy inconsistency - frequent changes in government lead to shifts in foreign policy direction
• Lack of clear priorities - sometimes unclear whether economic or political interests should come first
• Poor implementation - good policies are often poorly executed
• Image problems - negative perceptions about corruption, fraud, and insecurity
• Unilateral actions by Nigeria - sometimes Nigeria acts alone even in regional issues, causing resentment
• Balancing act - difficulty balancing African leadership with domestic development needs

Quick Summary

• Foreign policy = strategies a country uses to protect national interests and relate with other countries
• Main objectives: protecting sovereignty, promoting economic interests, African unity, international peace, human rights, Nigeria's image, and protecting Nigerians abroad
• Key principles: respect for sovereignty, non-alignment (historically), African interests priority, respect for international law, reciprocity, peaceful dispute settlement
• First Republic (1960-1966): cautious approach under Balewa; Anglo-Nigerian Defense Pact signed 1960, abrogated 1962
• Gowon era (1966-1975): Civil War diplomacy; ECOWAS founded 1975; recognized People's Republic of China
• Murtala/Obasanjo (1975-1979): radical Afrocentric policy; support for MPLA in Angola; nationalized BP 1979; hosted FESTAC '77; golden age of Nigerian foreign policy
• Second Republic (1979-1983): Shagari continued Afrocentric approach with economic diplomacy emphasis
• Buhari/Idiagbon (1984-1985): economic diplomacy focus; "Nigeria first" approach; retrenchment due to economic crisis
• Babangida (1985-1993): joined OIC in 1986 (controversial); led ECOMOG in Liberia; concentric circle approach
• Abacha (1993-1998): international isolation; suspended from Commonwealth 1995 after Ken Saro-Wiwa execution; human rights violations
• Abdulsalami (1998-1999): diplomatic fence-mending; readmitted to Commonwealth 1999
• Obasanjo civilian (1999-2007): shuttle diplomacy; debt relief success; NEPAD founding member; Bakassi dispute settlement
• Yar'Adua (2007-2010): citizen diplomacy; energy diplomacy; handed over Bakassi to Cameroon 2008
• Jonathan (2010-2015): economic diplomacy; security cooperation against Boko Haram
• Buhari second coming (2015-2023): security and anti-corruption focus; border closure 2019-2020
• Afrocentric policy: Africa-centered; prominent 1975-1983; examples include supporting liberation movements, creating ECOWAS, opposing apartheid
• Economic diplomacy: economy-centered; prominent from 1984 onward; focuses on trade, investment, debt relief
• Instruments: diplomacy (embassies, bilateral/multilateral talks), economic tools (aid, trade, sanctions), military (peacekeeping, cooperation), cultural/educational (exchanges, TAP), propaganda (VON, NTA)
• Key organizations: AU (formerly OAU, joined 1963), ECOWAS (1975), UN (1960), Commonwealth (suspended 1995-1999), OPEC (1971), OIC (1986)
• Major actions: Anglo-Nigerian pact abrogation 1962; BP nationalization 1979; alien expulsions 1983, 1985; ECOMOG in Liberia (1990s) and Sierra Leone (1997-2000); Bakassi handover 2008
• Challenges: economic constraints, domestic problems, policy inconsistency, implementation issues, image problems

Practice Questions

Q1: Which Nigerian leader is associated with the nationalization of British Petroleum (BP) assets in Nigeria?
(a) Tafawa Balewa
(b) Yakubu Gowon
(c) Olusegun Obasanjo
(d) Shehu Shagari

Ans: (c)
Olusegun Obasanjo nationalized BP in 1979 because Britain continued trading with apartheid South Africa, which violated Nigeria's strong stance against apartheid.

Q2: The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was established in
(a) 1963
(b) 1975
(c) 1960
(d) 1986

Ans: (b)
ECOWAS was founded in 1975 during General Yakubu Gowon's regime, with Nigeria playing the leading role in its establishment.

Q3: Nigeria's Afrocentric foreign policy was most prominent during the regime of
(a) Tafawa Balewa
(b) Murtala Mohammed/Olusegun Obasanjo
(c) Ibrahim Babangida
(d) Sani Abacha

Ans: (b)
The Murtala/Obasanjo era (1975-1979) is regarded as the golden age of Nigeria's Afrocentric policy, characterized by radical support for African liberation and continental leadership.

Q4: Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth between 1995 and 1999 because of
(a) The civil war
(b) Joining the OIC
(c) Human rights violations during Abacha's regime
(d) Economic sanctions

Ans: (c)
Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth in 1995 following the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and 8 other Ogoni activists, which highlighted serious human rights violations under General Abacha.

Q5: Which of the following best describes "Economic Diplomacy" in Nigerian foreign policy?
(a) Giving aid to African countries
(b) Using foreign policy to advance Nigeria's economic interests
(c) Fighting against colonialism in Africa
(d) Supporting liberation movements

Ans: (b)
Economic diplomacy means prioritizing Nigeria's economic benefits in foreign relations - seeking trade deals, investments, debt relief, and economic partnerships that directly benefit Nigeria's economy.

Q6: The Bakassi Peninsula was handed over to Cameroon by Nigeria in 2008 during the presidency of
(a) Olusegun Obasanjo
(b) Umaru Musa Yar'Adua
(c) Goodluck Jonathan
(d) Muhammadu Buhari

Ans: (b)
Although the International Court of Justice ruled in 2002 (during Obasanjo), the actual handover of the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon was completed in 2008 under President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua.