PRAXIS Exam > PRAXIS Notes > Praxis Core > Cheatsheet: Argument Analysis
Cheatsheet: Argument Analysis
1. Argument Components
1.1 Claims
| Component | Definition |
|---|---|
| Claim (Conclusion) | The main assertion or position the author wants the reader to accept |
| Main Claim | The primary conclusion of the entire argument |
| Subclaim | A supporting conclusion that helps establish the main claim |
1.2 Evidence
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Factual Evidence | Verifiable data, statistics, or observable information |
| Expert Testimony | Statements from authorities or specialists in a field |
| Examples | Specific instances that illustrate a general claim |
| Anecdotal Evidence | Personal stories or individual experiences |
1.3 Assumptions
- Unstated beliefs or premises that connect evidence to claims
- Bridge the gap between what is stated and the conclusion
- May be explicit (stated) or implicit (unstated)
- Must be accepted for the argument to work
1.4 Counterarguments and Rebuttals
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Counterargument | An opposing viewpoint or alternative position |
| Rebuttal | The author's response to a counterargument |
| Concession | Acknowledging a valid point from the opposition |
2. Identifying Author's Purpose and Perspective
2.1 Author's Purpose
| Purpose | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Persuade | Convince readers to accept a viewpoint or take action |
| Inform | Present facts or explain concepts objectively |
| Entertain | Engage readers through narrative or humor |
| Critique | Evaluate or analyze ideas, works, or positions |
2.2 Tone and Perspective Indicators
- Word choice (diction) reveals author's attitude
- Emotional language signals bias or strong feelings
- Objective language suggests neutrality
- First-person pronouns indicate personal perspective
- Third-person maintains distance and objectivity
2.3 Bias Recognition
| Type of Bias | Indicator |
|---|---|
| Selection Bias | Choosing only evidence that supports one viewpoint |
| Loaded Language | Using emotionally charged words to influence opinion |
| Omission | Leaving out relevant contradictory information |
| Source Bias | Citing only sources that agree with the author's position |
3. Evaluating Evidence
3.1 Criteria for Strong Evidence
| Criterion | Description |
|---|---|
| Relevance | Evidence directly supports the claim being made |
| Sufficiency | Enough evidence provided to adequately support the claim |
| Credibility | Evidence comes from reliable, trustworthy sources |
| Currency | Information is up-to-date and applicable |
| Accuracy | Evidence can be verified and is factually correct |
3.2 Weak or Flawed Evidence
- Outdated information that no longer applies
- Biased sources with vested interests
- Insufficient sample size or unrepresentative examples
- Anecdotal evidence used to make broad generalizations
- Irrelevant data that doesn't address the claim
- Unverified or unattributed statements
3.3 Source Evaluation
| Question | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Who is the author? | Assess expertise and potential bias |
| What is the publication date? | Determine currency and relevance |
| Where was it published? | Evaluate credibility and editorial standards |
| Why was it written? | Identify purpose and potential agenda |
4. Logical Reasoning and Structure
4.1 Deductive Reasoning
- Moves from general principles to specific conclusions
- If premises are true, conclusion must be true
- Structure: Major premise + Minor premise = Conclusion
- Example: All mammals breathe air; whales are mammals; therefore, whales breathe air
4.2 Inductive Reasoning
- Moves from specific observations to general conclusions
- Conclusions are probable but not guaranteed
- Strength depends on number and quality of observations
- Example: Every swan observed is white; therefore, all swans are white
4.3 Causal Reasoning
| Concept | Description |
|---|---|
| Cause and Effect | One event (cause) produces another event (effect) |
| Correlation vs. Causation | Two events occurring together doesn't mean one caused the other |
| Necessary Condition | Must be present for the effect to occur |
| Sufficient Condition | Guarantees the effect will occur |
4.4 Analogical Reasoning
- Compares two similar situations to draw conclusions
- Strength depends on relevance of similarities
- Weak when significant differences exist between compared items
- Often used to explain unfamiliar concepts
5. Logical Fallacies
5.1 Fallacies of Relevance
| Fallacy | Description |
|---|---|
| Ad Hominem | Attacking the person instead of addressing the argument |
| Appeal to Authority | Citing an authority outside their area of expertise |
| Appeal to Emotion | Using emotional manipulation instead of logical reasoning |
| Appeal to Popularity | Claiming something is true because many people believe it |
| Red Herring | Introducing irrelevant information to distract from the issue |
| Straw Man | Misrepresenting an opponent's position to make it easier to attack |
5.2 Fallacies of Weak Induction
| Fallacy | Description |
|---|---|
| Hasty Generalization | Drawing broad conclusions from insufficient evidence |
| False Cause (Post Hoc) | Assuming that because one event follows another, the first caused the second |
| Slippery Slope | Claiming one action will inevitably lead to extreme consequences without proof |
| Weak Analogy | Comparing two things that are not sufficiently similar |
5.3 Fallacies of Presumption
| Fallacy | Description |
|---|---|
| Begging the Question | Assuming what needs to be proven in the premise |
| False Dilemma | Presenting only two options when more exist |
| Loaded Question | Asking a question that contains an unwarranted assumption |
5.4 Fallacies of Ambiguity
| Fallacy | Description |
|---|---|
| Equivocation | Using a word with multiple meanings inconsistently in an argument |
| Amphiboly | Using ambiguous grammar to mislead |
6. Analyzing Argument Structure
6.1 Identifying Main Claim
- Often found in introduction or conclusion
- Look for thesis statements
- Identify what the author wants readers to believe or do
- Signal words: therefore, thus, consequently, in conclusion
6.2 Tracing Supporting Points
- Each paragraph or section advances a sub-point
- Topic sentences introduce supporting claims
- Evidence follows to substantiate each point
- Transitions show relationships between ideas
6.3 Recognizing Argument Patterns
| Pattern | Structure |
|---|---|
| Problem-Solution | Presents issue, then proposes remedy |
| Cause-Effect | Shows how one event leads to another |
| Compare-Contrast | Examines similarities and differences |
| Pro-Con | Weighs advantages and disadvantages |
6.4 Transition and Signal Words
| Function | Examples |
|---|---|
| Adding Information | furthermore, moreover, additionally, also |
| Contrasting | however, nevertheless, on the other hand, conversely |
| Showing Cause | because, since, due to, as a result |
| Concluding | therefore, thus, consequently, in summary |
| Exemplifying | for example, for instance, such as, specifically |
7. Evaluating Argument Strength
7.1 Strong Argument Characteristics
- Clear, specific claim that can be supported
- Relevant, sufficient, and credible evidence
- Logical connections between evidence and claims
- Addresses potential counterarguments
- Uses sound reasoning without fallacies
- Acknowledges limitations when appropriate
7.2 Weak Argument Characteristics
- Vague or overly broad claims
- Insufficient or irrelevant evidence
- Logical fallacies present
- Ignores opposing viewpoints
- Relies on assumptions that may not hold
- Makes unsupported leaps in logic
7.3 Questions for Evaluation
| Question | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Is the claim clearly stated? | Assess clarity and focus |
| Is the evidence relevant? | Determine if support addresses the claim |
| Is there enough evidence? | Evaluate sufficiency of support |
| Are sources credible? | Check reliability of information |
| Are there logical fallacies? | Identify flawed reasoning |
| Are counterarguments addressed? | Assess thoroughness and fairness |
8. Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions
8.1 Valid Inferences
- Based on evidence and reasoning in the text
- Go beyond what is explicitly stated
- Connect information to reach logical conclusions
- Must be supported by the passage
- Distinguish from unsupported speculation
8.2 Implied Main Ideas
- Central point not directly stated
- Determined by analyzing all supporting details
- Should encompass the entire passage
- Must be supported by multiple pieces of evidence
8.3 Reading Between the Lines
| Strategy | Application |
|---|---|
| Consider word choice | Diction reveals attitude and implications |
| Note what's emphasized | Repetition and placement indicate importance |
| Identify omissions | What's left out can be significant |
| Connect details | Patterns emerge from multiple pieces of information |
9. Comparing Arguments
9.1 Points of Comparison
| Element | What to Compare |
|---|---|
| Claims | Do authors agree or disagree on the main issue? |
| Evidence | What types of support does each use? |
| Reasoning | How do logical approaches differ? |
| Assumptions | What underlying beliefs differ between arguments? |
| Tone | How do attitudes toward the topic compare? |
9.2 Identifying Agreement and Disagreement
- Authors may agree on facts but disagree on interpretation
- Partial agreement with divergence on specific points
- Complete disagreement on fundamental premises
- Different conclusions from similar evidence
9.3 Evaluating Relative Strength
- Compare quality and quantity of evidence
- Assess logical soundness of each argument
- Identify which better addresses counterarguments
- Determine which makes fewer unsupported assumptions
- Consider credibility of sources cited
10. Rhetorical Strategies
10.1 Persuasive Appeals
| Appeal | Description |
|---|---|
| Ethos (Credibility) | Establishing trustworthiness and authority |
| Pathos (Emotion) | Appealing to feelings and values |
| Logos (Logic) | Using reasoning and evidence |
10.2 Rhetorical Devices
| Device | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Rhetorical Question | Question asked for effect, not requiring an answer |
| Repetition | Emphasizes key points and creates rhythm |
| Parallelism | Similar grammatical structure for related ideas |
| Analogy | Comparison to clarify or persuade |
| Anecdote | Brief story to illustrate a point |
10.3 Identifying Persuasive Techniques
- Emotional language to evoke specific responses
- Expert testimony to build credibility
- Statistics and data to appear objective
- Personal narratives to create connection
- Direct address to engage readers
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Apr 22, 2026 Last updated
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