PRAXIS Exam > PRAXIS Notes > Praxis Core > Cheatsheet: Sentence Structure
Cheatsheet: Sentence Structure
1. Basic Sentence Components
1.1 Subject and Predicate
| Component | Definition |
|---|---|
| Subject | The noun or pronoun that performs the action or is being described |
| Complete Subject | The simple subject plus all modifiers |
| Simple Subject | The main noun or pronoun without modifiers |
| Predicate | The verb and all words that complete its meaning |
| Complete Predicate | The verb plus all modifiers, objects, and complements |
| Simple Predicate | The main verb or verb phrase without modifiers |
1.2 Objects and Complements
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Direct Object | Noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb |
| Indirect Object | Noun or pronoun that tells to whom or for whom the action is done |
| Subject Complement | Word that follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject |
| Predicate Nominative | Noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject |
| Predicate Adjective | Adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject |
| Object Complement | Word that follows a direct object and renames or describes it |
2. Sentence Types by Structure
2.1 Four Basic Sentence Structures
| Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Simple Sentence | Contains one independent clause with a subject and predicate |
| Compound Sentence | Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, semicolon, or conjunctive adverb |
| Complex Sentence | Contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause |
| Compound-Complex Sentence | Contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause |
2.2 Clauses
| Clause Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Independent Clause | Contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought; can stand alone |
| Dependent Clause | Contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought; cannot stand alone |
| Subordinate Clause | Another term for dependent clause |
| Noun Clause | Dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence |
| Adjective Clause | Dependent clause that modifies a noun or pronoun; begins with relative pronoun or adverb |
| Adverb Clause | Dependent clause that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb; begins with subordinating conjunction |
3. Sentence Types by Purpose
| Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Declarative | Makes a statement and ends with a period |
| Interrogative | Asks a question and ends with a question mark |
| Imperative | Gives a command or makes a request; ends with a period or exclamation point |
| Exclamatory | Expresses strong emotion and ends with an exclamation point |
4. Phrases
4.1 Common Phrase Types
| Phrase Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Prepositional Phrase | Begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun (object of preposition) |
| Participial Phrase | Begins with a present or past participle and functions as an adjective |
| Gerund Phrase | Begins with a gerund (-ing verb form) and functions as a noun |
| Infinitive Phrase | Begins with "to" plus a verb and functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb |
| Appositive Phrase | Renames or identifies a noun and is placed next to it |
| Absolute Phrase | Modifies an entire sentence; contains a noun and participle but no complete verb |
4.2 Verbal Phrases
- Verbals are verb forms that function as other parts of speech
- Participles function as adjectives
- Gerunds function as nouns
- Infinitives function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs
- Verbal phrases include the verbal plus its modifiers and objects
5. Coordination and Subordination
5.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
- FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
- Join grammatically equal elements (words, phrases, or clauses)
- Use a comma before coordinating conjunction when joining independent clauses
- Do not use a comma when joining only two words or phrases
5.2 Subordinating Conjunctions
| Function | Common Subordinating Conjunctions |
|---|---|
| Time | after, before, when, while, until, since, as, once |
| Cause/Reason | because, since, as |
| Condition | if, unless, provided that, as long as |
| Contrast | although, though, even though, whereas, while |
| Purpose | so that, in order that |
5.3 Conjunctive Adverbs
- Connect independent clauses and show relationship between ideas
- Common conjunctive adverbs: however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, nevertheless, consequently, thus, otherwise, meanwhile
- Use semicolon before and comma after when joining independent clauses
5.4 Relative Pronouns
- Introduce adjective clauses: who, whom, whose, which, that
- Who/whom refer to people
- Which refers to things and animals
- That refers to people, things, and animals
- Whose shows possession
6. Common Sentence Errors
6.1 Fragments
| Fragment Type | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Subordinate Clause Fragment | Dependent clause punctuated as a complete sentence |
| Phrase Fragment | Phrase punctuated as a complete sentence (lacks subject or verb) |
| Missing Subject Fragment | Contains a verb but no subject |
| Missing Verb Fragment | Contains a subject but no complete verb |
6.2 Run-On Sentences
| Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Fused Sentence | Two independent clauses joined with no punctuation or conjunction |
| Comma Splice | Two independent clauses joined with only a comma |
6.2.1 Correcting Run-Ons
- Use a period to create two sentences
- Use a semicolon between independent clauses
- Use a comma plus coordinating conjunction
- Use a semicolon, conjunctive adverb, and comma
- Make one clause dependent with subordinating conjunction
6.3 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
| Error Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Misplaced Modifier | Modifier placed too far from the word it modifies, creating confusion |
| Dangling Modifier | Modifier that does not logically modify any word in the sentence |
| Squinting Modifier | Modifier positioned where it could modify either the word before or after it |
7. Parallel Structure
7.1 Parallelism Rules
- Items in a series must be in the same grammatical form
- Items joined by coordinating conjunctions must be parallel
- Items in comparisons using "than" or "as" must be parallel
- Items in lists or outlines must be parallel
7.2 Common Parallelism Situations
| Situation | Rule |
|---|---|
| Lists and Series | All items must use same grammatical structure (all nouns, all verbs, all phrases, etc.) |
| Correlative Conjunctions | Same structure must follow each part of the pair (either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also) |
| Comparisons | Elements being compared must be in same grammatical form |
8. Subject-Verb Agreement in Complex Structures
8.1 Agreement with Intervening Elements
- Verb agrees with subject, not with intervening prepositional phrases
- Phrases beginning with "along with," "as well as," "in addition to" do not change verb agreement
- Identify the true subject by eliminating interrupting phrases
8.2 Agreement with Compound Subjects
| Situation | Agreement Rule |
|---|---|
| Subjects joined by "and" | Use plural verb |
| Subjects joined by "or" or "nor" | Verb agrees with subject closer to verb |
| Subjects representing one unit | Use singular verb |
8.3 Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns
| Pronoun Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Always Singular | each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, nobody, anyone, someone, somebody |
| Always Plural | both, few, many, several |
| Singular or Plural | all, any, more, most, none, some (depends on noun they refer to) |
8.4 Inverted Sentence Order
- Verb still agrees with subject even when subject follows verb
- Common in questions and sentences beginning with "there" or "here"
- Identify the subject after the verb to determine correct agreement
9. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement in Complex Structures
9.1 Agreement Rules
- Pronoun must agree with antecedent in number (singular/plural)
- Pronoun must agree with antecedent in gender
- Pronoun must agree with antecedent in person (first, second, third)
- Antecedent must be clear and unambiguous
9.2 Compound Antecedents
| Situation | Pronoun Number |
|---|---|
| Antecedents joined by "and" | Use plural pronoun |
| Antecedents joined by "or" or "nor" | Pronoun agrees with closer antecedent |
9.3 Vague Pronoun Reference
- Avoid ambiguous references where pronoun could refer to multiple antecedents
- Avoid implied references where antecedent is not explicitly stated
- Avoid broad references using "this," "that," "which," or "it" without clear antecedent
10. Effective Sentence Construction
10.1 Variety in Sentence Structure
- Mix simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences
- Vary sentence length for rhythm and emphasis
- Vary sentence beginnings (avoid starting every sentence with subject)
- Use different sentence types (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory)
10.2 Emphasis Techniques
- Place important information at beginning or end of sentence
- Use active voice for directness and clarity
- Use periodic sentences (main idea at end) for suspense
- Use cumulative sentences (main idea at beginning) for clarity
- Use subordination to emphasize main ideas and de-emphasize supporting details
10.3 Conciseness and Clarity
- Eliminate redundant words and phrases
- Remove unnecessary qualifiers and intensifiers
- Avoid wordy expressions
- Use active voice when possible
- Place modifiers close to words they modify
11. Punctuation in Sentence Structure
11.1 Commas in Compound Sentences
- Use comma before coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses
- Do not use comma with compound predicate (same subject, two verbs)
11.2 Commas with Dependent Clauses
- Use comma after introductory dependent clause
- No comma when dependent clause follows independent clause (unless nonessential)
- Use commas around nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses
- No commas around essential (restrictive) clauses
11.3 Semicolons
- Join closely related independent clauses without conjunction
- Join independent clauses connected by conjunctive adverb
- Separate items in series when items contain internal commas
11.4 Colons
- Introduce a list, explanation, or example after independent clause
- Must follow independent clause
- Do not use after linking verb or preposition
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Apr 22, 2026 Last updated
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