PE Exam Exam > PE Exam Notes > Civil Engineering (PE Civil) > Cheatsheet: Project Planning & Scheduling
Cheatsheet: Project Planning & Scheduling
1. Project Planning Fundamentals
1.1 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Work Breakdown Structure | Hierarchical decomposition of total project scope into manageable work packages |
| Work Package | Lowest level of WBS; deliverable or project work component assigned to a single responsibility |
| Control Account | Management control point where scope, budget, and schedule are integrated |
- WBS organized by deliverables, not activities or timeline
- 100% Rule: WBS includes 100% of work defined by project scope
- Decomposition levels: Project → Deliverable → Sub-deliverable → Work Package
- Each level represents approximately 8-10x detail increase
1.2 Project Objectives and Constraints
| Constraint | Description |
|---|---|
| Scope | Work required to deliver product, service, or result with specified features |
| Time | Schedule duration to complete project deliverables |
| Cost | Budgeted resources required to complete project activities |
| Quality | Degree to which deliverables meet requirements and fitness for use |
| Resources | Labor, equipment, materials availability and allocation |
| Risk | Uncertain events or conditions affecting project objectives |
2. Scheduling Methods
2.1 Critical Path Method (CPM)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Critical Path | Longest duration path through network; determines minimum project duration |
| Total Float (TF) | Amount of time activity can be delayed without delaying project finish; TF = LF - EF = LS - ES |
| Free Float (FF) | Amount of time activity can be delayed without delaying early start of successor; FF = ES(successor) - EF |
| Early Start (ES) | Earliest time activity can begin based on network logic |
| Early Finish (EF) | Earliest time activity can complete; EF = ES + Duration |
| Late Start (LS) | Latest time activity can begin without delaying project |
| Late Finish (LF) | Latest time activity can complete without delaying project; LS = LF - Duration |
2.1.1 CPM Calculation Steps
- Forward Pass: Calculate ES and EF; ES = max(EF of predecessors); start with ES = 0
- Backward Pass: Calculate LS and LF; LF = min(LS of successors); start with LF = EF of last activity
- Critical activities have TF = 0
- Critical path may change when schedule is updated
2.2 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
| Formula | Equation |
|---|---|
| Expected Duration (te) | te = (to + 4tm + tp) / 6 |
| Variance (σ²) | σ² = [(tp - to) / 6]² |
| Standard Deviation (σ) | σ = (tp - to) / 6 |
| Z-Score | Z = (Ttarget - Texpected) / σpath |
- to = optimistic time (best case scenario)
- tm = most likely time (normal conditions)
- tp = pessimistic time (worst case scenario)
- Path variance = sum of variances of activities on path
- Path standard deviation = √(sum of variances)
- Assumes beta probability distribution
2.3 Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM)
| Relationship Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Finish-to-Start (FS) | Successor cannot start until predecessor finishes (most common) |
| Start-to-Start (SS) | Successor cannot start until predecessor starts |
| Finish-to-Finish (FF) | Successor cannot finish until predecessor finishes |
| Start-to-Finish (SF) | Successor cannot finish until predecessor starts (rarely used) |
- Activities represented as nodes (Activity-on-Node)
- Arrows show dependencies
- Lag: delay between predecessor and successor (FS+3 means 3-day lag)
- Lead: overlap between activities (FS-2 means 2-day lead/overlap)
2.4 Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM)
- Activity-on-Arrow representation
- Activities shown as arrows; nodes represent events
- Only FS relationships allowed
- Dummy activities required to show logic or maintain unique activity identification
- Less flexible than PDM; rarely used in modern practice
3. Schedule Development and Analysis
3.1 Duration Estimating
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Analogous Estimating | Uses historical data from similar activities; top-down; less accurate but quick |
| Parametric Estimating | Uses statistical relationship between historical data and variables (e.g., $/unit, hours/unit) |
| Three-Point Estimating | Uses optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic estimates (PERT) |
| Bottom-Up Estimating | Estimates individual work packages then aggregates; most accurate but time-intensive |
3.2 Resource Leveling and Smoothing
| Technique | Impact |
|---|---|
| Resource Leveling | Adjusts schedule to address resource constraints; may extend project duration; maintains resource limits |
| Resource Smoothing | Adjusts activities within float; does not change critical path or project duration; optimizes resource usage |
3.3 Schedule Compression
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Crashing | Add resources to critical path activities to reduce duration; increases cost; analyze cost/time tradeoff |
| Fast Tracking | Perform activities in parallel that were previously sequential; increases risk; no additional cost |
- Crash only critical path activities (crashing non-critical has no effect on duration)
- Crash activity with lowest cost slope: Cost Slope = (Crash Cost - Normal Cost) / (Normal Duration - Crash Duration)
- Fast tracking requires careful dependency analysis to avoid rework
3.4 Schedule Performance Metrics
| Metric | Formula |
|---|---|
| Schedule Variance (SV) | SV = EV - PV (negative = behind schedule) |
| Schedule Performance Index (SPI) | SPI = EV / PV (< 1.0="behind"> |
| Time Variance (TV) | TV = Planned Duration - Actual Duration |
- EV = Earned Value (budgeted cost of work performed)
- PV = Planned Value (budgeted cost of work scheduled)
- SPI = 1.0 indicates on schedule
- Monitor trends over time, not single data points
4. Earned Value Management (EVM)
4.1 Core EVM Metrics
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Planned Value (PV) | Authorized budget assigned to scheduled work (BCWS) |
| Earned Value (EV) | Budgeted cost of work actually performed (BCWP) |
| Actual Cost (AC) | Realized cost incurred for work performed (ACWP) |
| Budget at Completion (BAC) | Total planned budget for project |
4.2 EVM Variance Analysis
| Variance | Formula and Interpretation |
|---|---|
| Cost Variance (CV) | CV = EV - AC; Negative = over budget; Positive = under budget |
| Schedule Variance (SV) | SV = EV - PV; Negative = behind schedule; Positive = ahead of schedule |
| Variance at Completion (VAC) | VAC = BAC - EAC; Expected cost overrun or underrun |
4.3 EVM Performance Indices
| Index | Formula and Interpretation |
|---|---|
| Cost Performance Index (CPI) | CPI = EV / AC; < 1.0="over" budget;=""> 1.0 = under budget; measures cost efficiency |
| Schedule Performance Index (SPI) | SPI = EV / PV; < 1.0="behind" schedule;=""> 1.0 = ahead of schedule |
| To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI) | TCPI = (BAC - EV) / (BAC - AC); efficiency needed to meet BAC |
4.4 EVM Forecasting
| Forecast | Formula |
|---|---|
| Estimate at Completion (EAC) - Current CPI | EAC = BAC / CPI (assumes current performance continues) |
| EAC - Budgeted Rate | EAC = AC + (BAC - EV) (assumes future work at planned rate) |
| EAC - Current CPI and SPI | EAC = AC + [(BAC - EV) / (CPI × SPI)] (considers both cost and schedule) |
| Estimate to Complete (ETC) | ETC = EAC - AC (remaining budget needed) |
| Estimate to Complete - Re-estimate | ETC = Bottom-up estimate of remaining work |
4.5 EVM Key Relationships
- BAC = Total PV at project completion
- When SPI < 1.0="" and="" cpi="">< 1.0:="" project="" behind="" schedule="" and="" over="">
- CPI stabilizes around 20% project completion; reliable for forecasting
- SPI becomes unreliable near project end (approaches 1.0)
- TCPI > 1.0 indicates more efficiency required to meet budget
5. Scheduling Software and Techniques
5.1 Gantt Charts
- Bar chart showing activities against time axis
- Shows activity start, duration, and finish dates
- Can display dependencies, milestones, and critical path
- Easy to understand but does not clearly show logic relationships
- Resource loading can be shown with histograms
5.2 Milestone Charts
- Show only key events or deliverables
- Milestones have zero duration
- Used for executive-level reporting
- Does not show work activities or dependencies
5.3 Network Diagrams
- Show activity dependencies and logical relationships
- PDM (nodes = activities) or ADM (arrows = activities)
- Critical path shown by highlighting or color coding
- Better for complex logic; harder to read than Gantt charts
5.4 Schedule Baseline
- Approved version of schedule used for comparison
- Changes require formal change control process
- Used to measure schedule performance (variance analysis)
- Includes start dates, finish dates, and durations
6. Project Delivery Methods
6.1 Traditional Delivery Methods
| Method | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Design-Bid-Build (DBB) | Sequential; owner contracts separately with designer then contractor; clear scope before bidding; longest duration |
| Design-Build (DB) | Single contract for design and construction; faster delivery; less owner control; fixed price or GMP |
| Construction Manager at Risk (CMAR) | CM provides input during design; guarantees maximum price; fast-track possible; collaborative approach |
| Construction Manager as Agent (CMA) | CM represents owner; no price guarantee; owner holds construction contracts; fee-based CM compensation |
6.2 Alternative Delivery Methods
| Method | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) | Early involvement of all parties; shared risk/reward; collaborative; BIM integration |
| Public-Private Partnership (P3) | Private entity finances, builds, operates; long-term concession; public ownership retained or transferred |
| Job Order Contracting (JOC) | Unit price book for small projects; indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity (IDIQ); fast procurement |
7. Contract Types and Scheduling Implications
7.1 Contract Types
| Contract Type | Risk Allocation and Schedule Impact |
|---|---|
| Lump Sum (Fixed Price) | Contractor bears cost risk; schedule incentive to finish early; complete design required |
| Unit Price | Payment per unit of work; quantity risk varies; suitable for uncertain quantities |
| Cost Plus Fixed Fee (CPFF) | Owner bears cost risk; less schedule pressure on contractor; fee does not vary with cost |
| Cost Plus Incentive Fee (CPIF) | Shared cost risk; incentive for cost control; fee varies based on performance metrics |
| Cost Plus Percentage of Cost (CPPC) | Owner bears all cost risk; no contractor incentive for cost control; rarely used |
| Time and Material (T&M) | Hourly rates plus materials; owner bears productivity risk; suitable for small/undefined scope |
| Guaranteed Maximum Price (GMP) | Owner protected from overruns; contractor incentivized to control costs; savings often shared |
7.2 Schedule-Related Contract Clauses
- Time is of the Essence: makes schedule compliance material term of contract
- Liquidated Damages (LD): predetermined daily amount for late completion; must be reasonable estimate of actual damages
- No Damages for Delay: contractor waived right to delay damages; time extension only remedy
- Substantial Completion: point when owner can use facility for intended purpose; triggers warranty period
- Beneficial Occupancy: owner takes partial possession before substantial completion
- Early Completion Bonus: incentive payment for finishing ahead of schedule
8. Schedule Risk and Uncertainty
8.1 Schedule Risk Analysis Methods
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Monte Carlo Simulation | Runs multiple schedule iterations with random duration sampling; produces probability distribution of completion dates |
| Sensitivity Analysis | Identifies activities with greatest impact on schedule; tornado diagrams show relative influence |
| Decision Tree Analysis | Evaluates alternative paths with probabilistic outcomes; calculates expected monetary value (EMV) |
| What-If Analysis | Tests schedule impact of specific scenarios or risk events |
8.2 Schedule Contingency and Buffers
- Contingency Reserve: time buffer for identified risks; part of schedule baseline; requires management approval to use
- Management Reserve: time buffer for unknown risks; not in baseline; requires senior management approval
- Critical Chain Method: uses feeding buffers (protect critical chain from non-critical delays) and project buffer (protect completion date)
- Buffer sizing: 50% of removed safety time or statistical methods
8.3 Schedule Risk Response Strategies
| Strategy | Application |
|---|---|
| Avoid | Eliminate threat by changing schedule approach or scope |
| Mitigate | Reduce probability or impact (add resources, use proven methods) |
| Transfer | Shift risk to third party (insurance, warranties, contract terms) |
| Accept | Acknowledge risk; develop contingency plan (active) or address if occurs (passive) |
| Exploit | Ensure positive risk (opportunity) occurs |
| Enhance | Increase probability or impact of opportunity |
9. Schedule Updates and Control
9.1 Schedule Update Process
- Data Date (status date): point in time for which progress is reported
- Update actual start and finish dates for completed activities
- Record percent complete or remaining duration for in-progress activities
- Verify logic for remaining work
- Update activity durations based on current conditions
- Identify new activities or delete obsolete activities
- Recalculate critical path after updating
9.2 Schedule Performance Analysis
| Indicator | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Critical Path Lengthening | Project duration increasing; requires corrective action |
| Float Consumption | Activities using available float faster than planned; early warning of potential delays |
| Near-Critical Activities | Activities with low float becoming critical; monitor closely |
| Out-of-Sequence Progress | Successor starting before predecessor complete; indicates logic errors or work around |
9.3 Schedule Change Control
- Document requested changes with justification and impact analysis
- Evaluate schedule, cost, and scope impacts
- Obtain approval through formal change control process
- Update baseline only for approved changes
- Maintain change log with dates, descriptions, and approvals
- Preserve prior baselines for historical reference
9.4 Schedule Compression Limits
- Cannot crash activity below its crash duration
- Crashing increases direct costs; evaluate against delay costs
- Critical path may shift when activities are crashed
- Multiple critical paths may exist; must crash all simultaneously
- Diminishing returns: cost per time saved increases with compression
10. Delay Analysis and Claims
10.1 Types of Delays
| Delay Type | Definition and Responsibility |
|---|---|
| Excusable Compensable | Owner-caused; contractor entitled to time extension and cost recovery (defective plans, late site access) |
| Excusable Non-Compensable | Neither party at fault; time extension only (weather, labor strikes, acts of God) |
| Non-Excusable | Contractor-caused; no time extension or compensation; may incur liquidated damages (poor performance, inadequate staffing) |
| Concurrent Delay | Multiple delays occur simultaneously; complex entitlement analysis; may reduce or eliminate recovery |
| Critical Delay | Delay to critical path activity; extends project duration |
| Non-Critical Delay | Delay to activity with float; does not extend project unless float consumed |
10.2 Delay Analysis Methods
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| As-Planned vs. As-Built | Compares original baseline to actual completion; simple but does not identify specific causes |
| Impacted As-Planned | Inserts delay events into baseline schedule; shows theoretical impact; prospective analysis |
| Collapsed As-Built | Removes delay events from as-built; shows completion without delays; retrospective analysis |
| Time Impact Analysis (TIA) | Inserts delay into contemporaneous schedule; analyzes impact at time of occurrence; most defensible |
| Windows Analysis | Divides project into time periods; compares planned vs. actual for each window; identifies when delays occurred |
10.3 Schedule Claim Documentation
- Baseline schedule with logic and durations
- Regular schedule updates showing progress
- Daily logs, meeting minutes, and correspondence
- Notice of delay submitted within contract timeframe
- Demonstration of critical path impact
- Quantification of time extension requested
- Cost impact analysis for compensable delays
- Proof delay was beyond contractor control (excusable delays)
11. Procurement and Submittal Scheduling
11.1 Procurement Schedule Elements
- Specification review and vendor selection: 2-4 weeks
- Submittal preparation and submission: 1-2 weeks
- Design review and approval: 2-4 weeks (standard), 4-6 weeks (complex)
- Fabrication: varies by item (structural steel 8-12 weeks, mechanical equipment 12-20 weeks)
- Shipping and delivery: 1-4 weeks depending on distance and item size
- Installation duration based on crew size and complexity
11.2 Long-Lead Items
| Item Category | Typical Lead Time |
|---|---|
| Structural Steel | 10-16 weeks from approval to delivery |
| Mechanical Equipment | 16-24 weeks (chillers, boilers, large pumps) |
| Electrical Switchgear | 20-28 weeks |
| Elevators | 16-20 weeks |
| Custom Architectural Elements | 12-20 weeks |
11.3 Submittal Management
- Create submittal schedule integrated with construction schedule
- Submit in time for review without delaying procurement
- Track submittal status: submitted, reviewed, approved, rejected, revise and resubmit
- Approved submittals required before fabrication starts
- Resubmittals add 2-3 weeks to schedule; include contingency
12. Resource Management
12.1 Resource Loading
- Assign resources (labor, equipment, materials) to activities
- Resource histogram shows demand over time
- Identify over-allocation (demand exceeds availability)
- Peak demand determines resource requirements
12.2 Resource Leveling Techniques
- Delay non-critical activities to reduce peak demand
- Extend activity duration to reduce daily resource needs
- Split activities to move work to periods with capacity
- Prioritize critical path activities for resource allocation
- May extend project duration to maintain resource constraints
12.3 Resource Allocation Methods
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Heuristic Rules | Apply priority rules (shortest duration first, least float first, most resources first) |
| Resource Leveling | Resolve over-allocations; may delay project |
| Resource Smoothing | Optimize resource usage within float; maintains project duration |
| Critical Resource | Allocate limited resource to critical activities first |
12.4 Labor Productivity Factors
- Learning curve: productivity improves 10-20% as workers gain experience
- Overtime: productivity decreases 10% after 50 hours/week, 25% after 60 hours/week
- Weather: cold (<32°f) or="" hot="" (="">95°F) reduces productivity 10-30%
- Site congestion: multiple trades in same area reduces productivity 10-20%
- Shift work: second shift 90% productive; third shift 70% productive
13. Project Controls and Monitoring
13.1 Progress Measurement Methods
| Method | Application |
|---|---|
| 0/100 Rule | No credit until complete; conservative; suitable for short duration activities (< 2=""> |
| 50/50 Rule | 50% credit at start, 50% at finish; simple; suitable for medium activities (2-4 weeks) |
| Percent Complete | Based on physical measurement or professional judgment; most accurate for long activities |
| Weighted Milestone | Credit for achieving interim milestones; predetermined percentages; objective measurement |
| Units Complete | Count completed units (cubic yards, square feet); accurate for repetitive work |
13.2 Schedule Quality Metrics
- Logic: all activities except start/finish have predecessor and successor
- Hard constraints: minimize use of date constraints (start-on, finish-on, must-start-by)
- High float: activities with float > 44 days investigated for missing logic
- Negative float: indicates behind schedule or logic errors
- Critical path test: remove critical activities to verify path changes
- Resource loading: all activities have assigned resources
- Missed activities: activities not updated for 2+ periods reviewed
13.3 Schedule Health Indicators
| Metric | Threshold |
|---|---|
| Critical Path Activities | 5-10% of total activities |
| Activities with TF = 0 | Should match critical path count |
| Activities with Constraints | < 5%="" of=""> |
| Open Ends (missing logic) | 0% except start/finish |
| Activities with High Float (> 44 days) | < 5%="" of=""> |
| Activities in Progress | 10-20% of total (varies by project phase) |
13.4 Look-Ahead Planning
- Short-term schedule (2-6 weeks) with detailed activities
- Identifies constraints preventing work (missing submittals, materials, access)
- Updated weekly in coordination meetings
- Confirms resource availability and sequencing
- Removes constraints before activities become critical
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