Police Service Commission Exam Exam > Police Service Commission Exam Notes > General Knowledge for Police Exam Preparation (Nigeria) > Cheatsheet: Science & Technology Basics
Cheatsheet: Science & Technology Basics
1. Basic Physics Concepts
1.1 Fundamental Quantities and Units
| Physical Quantity | SI Unit (Symbol) |
|---|---|
| Length | Metre (m) |
| Mass | Kilogram (kg) |
| Time | Second (s) |
| Temperature | Kelvin (K) |
| Electric Current | Ampere (A) |
| Amount of Substance | Mole (mol) |
| Luminous Intensity | Candela (cd) |
1.2 Motion and Force
| Concept | Definition/Formula |
|---|---|
| Speed | Distance covered per unit time; Speed = Distance/Time |
| Velocity | Displacement per unit time in a specified direction |
| Acceleration | Rate of change of velocity; a = (v - u)/t |
| Force | Push or pull that changes motion; F = ma |
| Weight | Gravitational force on an object; W = mg (g = 10 m/s²) |
| Momentum | Product of mass and velocity; p = mv |
1.3 Newton's Laws of Motion
- First Law: An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force
- Second Law: Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma)
- Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
1.4 Energy and Work
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Work | Energy transferred when force moves an object; W = F × d |
| Kinetic Energy | Energy of motion; KE = ½mv² |
| Potential Energy | Stored energy due to position; PE = mgh |
| Power | Rate of doing work; P = Work/Time |
| Law of Conservation of Energy | Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed |
1.5 Electricity
| Quantity | Definition/Formula |
|---|---|
| Electric Current (I) | Flow of electric charge; measured in Amperes (A) |
| Voltage (V) | Electrical potential difference; measured in Volts (V) |
| Resistance (R) | Opposition to current flow; measured in Ohms (Ω) |
| Ohm's Law | V = IR |
| Electric Power | P = VI = I²R = V²/R; measured in Watts (W) |
1.6 Light and Optics
- Reflection: Bouncing of light off a surface; angle of incidence = angle of reflection
- Refraction: Bending of light when passing from one medium to another
- Speed of Light: 3 × 10⁸ m/s in vacuum
- Convex Lens: Converges light rays; used in magnifying glasses, cameras
- Concave Lens: Diverges light rays; used to correct short-sightedness
- Mirrors: Plane (flat image), Concave (converging), Convex (diverging)
1.7 Heat and Temperature
| Concept | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Temperature | Measure of hotness or coldness; measured in °C, K, or °F |
| Heat | Energy transferred due to temperature difference |
| Conduction | Heat transfer through direct contact in solids |
| Convection | Heat transfer through fluid movement in liquids and gases |
| Radiation | Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves without a medium |
| Boiling Point of Water | 100°C at standard atmospheric pressure |
| Freezing Point of Water | 0°C at standard atmospheric pressure |
2. Basic Chemistry Concepts
2.1 Matter and States
| State of Matter | Properties |
|---|---|
| Solid | Fixed shape and volume; particles tightly packed; vibrate in position |
| Liquid | Fixed volume but takes shape of container; particles move freely |
| Gas | No fixed shape or volume; particles move randomly and rapidly |
| Plasma | Ionized gas with free electrons; found in stars and lightning |
2.2 Atomic Structure
| Particle | Charge/Mass/Location |
|---|---|
| Proton | Positive charge (+1); mass ≈ 1 amu; in nucleus |
| Neutron | No charge (neutral); mass ≈ 1 amu; in nucleus |
| Electron | Negative charge (-1); negligible mass; orbits nucleus |
| Atomic Number | Number of protons in an atom |
| Mass Number | Total number of protons and neutrons |
2.3 The Periodic Table
- Elements: Pure substances made of one type of atom
- Groups: Vertical columns; elements with similar chemical properties
- Periods: Horizontal rows; indicate number of electron shells
- Metals: Left side and center; conduct electricity, shiny, malleable
- Non-metals: Right side; poor conductors, brittle if solid
- Metalloids: Border between metals and non-metals; semi-conducting properties
2.4 Common Elements and Symbols
| Element | Symbol |
|---|---|
| Hydrogen | H |
| Carbon | C |
| Nitrogen | N |
| Oxygen | O |
| Sodium | Na |
| Chlorine | Cl |
| Iron | Fe |
| Copper | Cu |
| Gold | Au |
| Silver | Ag |
2.5 Chemical Compounds and Reactions
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Compound | Two or more elements chemically bonded in fixed ratios |
| Mixture | Two or more substances physically combined; can be separated |
| Chemical Formula | Shows elements and their ratios in a compound (H₂O, CO₂, NaCl) |
| Chemical Reaction | Process where substances transform into new substances |
| Reactants | Starting substances in a chemical reaction |
| Products | New substances formed in a chemical reaction |
2.6 Common Chemical Compounds
| Compound | Formula |
|---|---|
| Water | H₂O |
| Carbon Dioxide | CO₂ |
| Table Salt | NaCl |
| Ammonia | NH₃ |
| Methane | CH₄ |
| Sulfuric Acid | H₂SO₄ |
| Hydrochloric Acid | HCl |
2.7 Acids, Bases, and pH
| Concept | Description |
|---|---|
| Acid | Sour taste; turns blue litmus red; pH <> |
| Base | Bitter taste; slippery feel; turns red litmus blue; pH > 7 |
| Neutral | Neither acidic nor basic; pH = 7 (pure water) |
| pH Scale | Measures acidity/alkalinity from 0-14 |
| Indicator | Substance that changes color in acid or base (litmus, phenolphthalein) |
3. Basic Biology Concepts
3.1 Cell Structure
| Cell Component | Function |
|---|---|
| Cell Membrane | Controls what enters and leaves the cell |
| Cytoplasm | Jelly-like substance where cell activities occur |
| Nucleus | Controls cell activities; contains DNA |
| Mitochondria | Powerhouse of the cell; produces energy through respiration |
| Chloroplast | Site of photosynthesis in plant cells; contains chlorophyll |
| Cell Wall | Provides support and protection in plant cells |
| Vacuole | Storage of water and nutrients; large in plant cells |
3.2 Plant vs Animal Cells
- Both have: Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria
- Only plant cells have: Cell wall, chloroplasts, large central vacuole
- Only animal cells have: Centrioles, small vacuoles
3.3 Human Body Systems
| System | Main Function |
|---|---|
| Circulatory | Transports blood, oxygen, and nutrients throughout body |
| Respiratory | Takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide |
| Digestive | Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients |
| Nervous | Controls body functions through electrical signals |
| Skeletal | Provides structure, support, and protection |
| Muscular | Enables movement of body and organs |
| Excretory | Removes waste products from the body |
| Reproductive | Produces offspring |
3.4 Photosynthesis and Respiration
| Process | Details |
|---|---|
| Photosynthesis | 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂; occurs in chloroplasts |
| Cellular Respiration | C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy; occurs in mitochondria |
3.5 Classification of Living Things
- Kingdom: Broadest category (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Monera)
- Phylum: Major subdivision of kingdom
- Class: Subdivision of phylum
- Order: Subdivision of class
- Family: Subdivision of order
- Genus: Group of closely related species
- Species: Most specific category; organisms that can interbreed
3.6 DNA and Genetics
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid; carries genetic information |
| Gene | Section of DNA that codes for a specific trait |
| Chromosome | Tightly coiled DNA structure; humans have 46 (23 pairs) |
| Heredity | Passing of traits from parents to offspring |
| Dominant Trait | Trait expressed when one copy of gene is present |
| Recessive Trait | Trait expressed only when two copies of gene are present |
3.7 Diseases and Pathogens
| Pathogen Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Bacteria | Tuberculosis, Cholera, Typhoid fever |
| Virus | HIV/AIDS, Influenza, COVID-19, Measles, Polio |
| Fungi | Ringworm, Athlete's foot, Thrush |
| Protozoa | Malaria, Sleeping sickness |
4. Technology Basics
4.1 Computer Fundamentals
| Component | Function |
|---|---|
| CPU (Central Processing Unit) | Brain of computer; processes instructions and calculations |
| RAM (Random Access Memory) | Temporary storage for running programs and data |
| ROM (Read Only Memory) | Permanent storage containing basic startup instructions |
| Hard Drive/SSD | Permanent storage for files, programs, and operating system |
| Motherboard | Main circuit board connecting all components |
| Input Devices | Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone |
| Output Devices | Monitor, printer, speakers, projector |
4.2 Computer Software Types
| Software Category | Description/Examples |
|---|---|
| Operating System | Manages hardware and software; Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS |
| Application Software | Programs for specific tasks; MS Word, Excel, browsers |
| System Software | Helps run computer hardware and applications; device drivers |
| Antivirus Software | Protects against malware and viruses |
4.3 Internet and Networking
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Internet | Global network of interconnected computers |
| WWW (World Wide Web) | System of interlinked web pages accessed via internet |
| Browser | Software to access web pages; Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge |
| URL | Uniform Resource Locator; web address |
| IP Address | Unique numerical identifier for devices on a network |
| Wi-Fi | Wireless network technology for internet connection |
| Electronic mail for sending messages over internet | |
| Cloud Computing | Storing and accessing data over internet instead of local storage |
4.4 Digital Storage Units
| Unit | Size |
|---|---|
| Bit | Smallest unit; 0 or 1 |
| Byte | 8 bits |
| Kilobyte (KB) | 1,024 bytes |
| Megabyte (MB) | 1,024 KB |
| Gigabyte (GB) | 1,024 MB |
| Terabyte (TB) | 1,024 GB |
4.5 Mobile Technology
- Smartphone: Mobile phone with advanced computing capabilities
- Operating Systems: Android (Google), iOS (Apple)
- Apps: Software applications designed for mobile devices
- GPS: Global Positioning System for location tracking and navigation
- Mobile Data: 3G, 4G, 5G networks for internet access
- Bluetooth: Short-range wireless technology for device connection
4.6 Cybersecurity Basics
| Threat/Concept | Description |
|---|---|
| Virus | Malicious software that replicates and damages systems |
| Malware | Harmful software including viruses, worms, trojans |
| Phishing | Fraudulent attempt to obtain sensitive information via fake emails/websites |
| Password | Secret code for authentication; should be strong and unique |
| Encryption | Converting data into code to prevent unauthorized access |
| Firewall | Security system that monitors and controls network traffic |
4.7 Modern Technologies
| Technology | Description |
|---|---|
| Artificial Intelligence (AI) | Computer systems performing tasks requiring human intelligence |
| Robotics | Design and use of robots for automated tasks |
| Biometrics | Identification using biological characteristics; fingerprints, facial recognition |
| Blockchain | Decentralized digital ledger for secure transactions |
| Internet of Things (IoT) | Network of connected devices sharing data |
| Virtual Reality (VR) | Computer-generated simulation of 3D environment |
5. Scientific Method and Measurement
5.1 Scientific Method Steps
- Observation: Noticing and describing phenomena
- Question: Asking what, why, or how about the observation
- Hypothesis: Proposed explanation that can be tested
- Experiment: Testing the hypothesis through controlled procedures
- Analysis: Examining data collected from experiment
- Conclusion: Determining if hypothesis is supported or rejected
5.2 Metric System Conversions
| Measurement | Conversions |
|---|---|
| Length | 1 km = 1,000 m; 1 m = 100 cm; 1 cm = 10 mm |
| Mass | 1 kg = 1,000 g; 1 g = 1,000 mg |
| Volume | 1 L = 1,000 mL; 1 m³ = 1,000 L |
5.3 Scientific Instruments
| Instrument | Use |
|---|---|
| Thermometer | Measures temperature |
| Barometer | Measures atmospheric pressure |
| Microscope | Magnifies small objects for observation |
| Telescope | Observes distant objects in space |
| Beaker | Contains and measures liquids |
| Test Tube | Holds small amounts of substances for experiments |
| Bunsen Burner | Provides heat for experiments |
6. Environmental Science
6.1 Ecosystem Components
| Component | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ecosystem | Community of living organisms interacting with their environment |
| Producers | Organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis; plants |
| Consumers | Organisms that eat other organisms for energy; animals |
| Decomposers | Break down dead organisms; bacteria and fungi |
| Food Chain | Linear sequence showing energy transfer from one organism to another |
| Food Web | Interconnected food chains in an ecosystem |
6.2 Environmental Issues
| Issue | Description |
|---|---|
| Climate Change | Long-term shift in global temperatures and weather patterns |
| Global Warming | Increase in Earth's average temperature due to greenhouse gases |
| Deforestation | Clearing of forests leading to habitat loss and climate impact |
| Pollution | Introduction of harmful substances into environment; air, water, land |
| Ozone Layer Depletion | Thinning of protective ozone layer due to CFCs and other chemicals |
| Desertification | Land degradation in arid areas resulting in desert expansion |
6.3 Renewable vs Non-Renewable Resources
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Renewable Energy | Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass |
| Non-Renewable Energy | Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel |
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