PE Exam Exam > PE Exam Notes > Civil Engineering (PE Civil) > Cheatsheet: Wastewater Systems
Cheatsheet: Wastewater Systems
1. Collection Systems
1.1 Gravity Sewers
| Parameter | Value/Description |
|---|---|
| Minimum slope | 0.5% for 8-inch pipes; velocity ≥ 2.0 fps to prevent solids settling |
| Maximum velocity | 10-15 fps to prevent pipe erosion and scour |
| Minimum pipe diameter | 8 inches for residential; 6 inches for building laterals |
| Manning's n | PVC: 0.009-0.011; concrete: 0.012-0.013; vitrified clay: 0.013 |
| Design flow depth | d/D = 0.5 to 0.75 at peak flow for adequate hydraulic capacity |
| Peaking factor | Harmon Formula: PF = (18 + P^0.5)/(4 + P^0.5), where P = population in thousands |
1.2 Force Mains
| Parameter | Value/Description |
|---|---|
| Design velocity | 2-8 fps; minimum 2.5 fps to prevent solids deposition |
| Hazen-Williams C | PVC: 150; ductile iron: 120-140; steel: 100-120 |
| Head loss formula | h = (10.67 L Q^1.85)/(C^1.85 D^4.87), where L in ft, Q in gpm, D in inches |
| Minimum diameter | 4 inches to minimize clogging risk |
| Air release valves | Install at high points; combination air/vacuum valves for profile changes |
1.3 Pump Stations
| Component | Design Criteria |
|---|---|
| Wet well volume | 4-10 minutes detention at average flow; minimum 10 pump cycles/hour |
| Pump capacity | Multiple pumps; largest pump out of service, remaining pumps handle peak flow |
| Pump type | Submersible or dry pit; non-clog impellers for wastewater |
| Minimum impeller | 3-inch solids handling capability for untreated wastewater |
| Specific speed | Ns = (N × Q^0.5)/H^0.75; optimal range 1500-4000 for wastewater pumps |
| NPSH available | Must exceed NPSH required by 2-3 ft minimum to prevent cavitation |
2. Wastewater Characteristics
2.1 Flow Parameters
| Parameter | Typical Value |
|---|---|
| Per capita flow | 80-120 gpcd (residential); includes infiltration/inflow |
| Peak flow ratio | Peak hourly/average: 2.0-3.5; minimum hourly/average: 0.3-0.5 |
| Infiltration | 100-500 gpd/inch-diameter/mile of pipe (older systems higher) |
| Inflow allowance | Design for wet weather flow: 2-5 times average dry weather flow |
2.2 Wastewater Quality
| Parameter | Typical Domestic Values |
|---|---|
| BOD5 | 200-300 mg/L (medium strength); 110-400 mg/L range |
| COD | 400-600 mg/L; COD/BOD5 ratio: 1.5-2.5 |
| TSS | 200-350 mg/L; VSS typically 60-80% of TSS |
| Total nitrogen | 40-70 mg/L as N; 60% organic N, 40% ammonia in raw wastewater |
| Total phosphorus | 6-12 mg/L as P; 30% organic, 70% inorganic |
| Alkalinity | 100-250 mg/L as CaCO3 |
| pH | 6.5-8.5 |
| BOD5 loading | 0.17-0.20 lb/capita/day |
3. Preliminary Treatment
3.1 Bar Screens
| Parameter | Design Criteria |
|---|---|
| Bar spacing | Coarse: 1.5-3 inches; fine: 0.25-0.75 inches |
| Approach velocity | 1.5-2.5 fps at average flow; 2.0-3.5 fps at peak flow |
| Channel velocity | 0.5-2.0 fps to prevent solids deposition |
| Head loss clean | 6-12 inches; maximum 2.5 ft when 50% clogged |
| Screen angle | 30-60° from horizontal (manually cleaned); 60-90° (mechanically cleaned) |
| Screenings quantity | 0.5-2.0 ft³/MG for coarse screens; 3-12 ft³/MG for fine screens |
3.2 Grit Chambers
3.2.1 Horizontal Flow
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Detention time | 45-90 seconds at peak hourly flow |
| Horizontal velocity | 0.9-1.3 fps (velocity controlled) |
| Depth | 2-5 ft |
| Length | 25-90 ft |
| Grit removal | 1-4 ft³/MG; specific gravity 2.65 |
3.2.2 Aerated Grit Chambers
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Detention time | 2-5 minutes at peak flow |
| Depth | 7-16 ft |
| Air supply rate | 2-5 cfm/ft of tank length |
| Length to width | 3:1 to 5:1 |
3.3 Flow Equalization
- Basin volume calculation: integrate mass curve of flow variation over 24 hours
- Side water depth: 10-15 ft with 1-2 ft freeboard
- Detention time: 4-24 hours for diurnal equalization
- Mixing: 20-30 hp/MG to prevent solids settling; 0.5-1.0 air cfm/gallon capacity
- Odor control: covered basins with air scrubbing at large facilities
4. Primary Treatment
4.1 Primary Clarifiers
| Parameter | Circular |
|---|---|
| Surface overflow rate | 400-800 gpd/ft² (average); 1000-1200 gpd/ft² (peak) |
| Detention time | 1.5-2.5 hours at average flow |
| Weir loading | 10,000-20,000 gpd/ft for circular tanks |
| Depth | 10-15 ft (side water depth) |
| Diameter | 30-150 ft; minimum 30 ft for proper sludge scraping |
| Bottom slope | 1:12 (8%) for center-feed circular tanks |
| Scour velocity | Maximum horizontal velocity through tank < 15=""> |
| BOD5 removal | 30-40%; TSS removal: 50-70% |
| Sludge production | 800-1200 lb dry solids/MG; 3-7% solids content |
5. Secondary Treatment - Activated Sludge
5.1 Conventional Activated Sludge
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| F/M ratio | 0.2-0.5 lb BOD5/lb MLVSS-day |
| MLSS | 1500-3000 mg/L |
| SRT (θc) | 5-15 days |
| HRT | 4-8 hours |
| Aeration period | 4-8 hours |
| BOD5 removal | 85-95%; effluent BOD5 < 30=""> |
| Oxygen requirement | 0.9-1.2 lb O2/lb BOD5 removed |
| Recycle ratio | 0.25-0.50 (Q_r/Q) |
5.2 Process Variations
| Process | Key Parameters |
|---|---|
| Extended Aeration | F/M: 0.05-0.15; SRT: 20-30 days; MLSS: 3000-5000 mg/L; HRT: 18-36 hours |
| Contact Stabilization | Contact time: 0.5-1 hour; reaeration: 3-6 hours; total HRT: 4-7 hours |
| Step Aeration | Influent fed at multiple points; uniform oxygen demand; HRT: 3-5 hours |
| Pure Oxygen | MLSS: 4000-8000 mg/L; F/M: 0.25-1.0; covered tanks; 90% oxygen purity |
5.3 Design Formulas
| Formula | Description |
|---|---|
| F/M = Q × S_0/(V × X) | Q = flow (MGD), S_0 = influent BOD5 (mg/L), V = volume (MG), X = MLVSS (mg/L) |
| θc = (V × X)/(Q_w × X_r) | Q_w = waste flow (MGD), X_r = RAS concentration (mg/L) |
| P_x = Q(S_0 - S)Y/(1 + k_d × θc) | P_x = net waste (lb/day), Y = 0.4-0.8 lb VSS/lb BOD5, k_d = 0.025-0.075 day^-1 |
| SVI = (1000 × V_30)/MLSS | V_30 = settled volume (mL/L) after 30 min; SVI = 80-150 mL/g (good settling) |
| O_2 = Q(S_0 - S) - 1.42P_x | Oxygen requirement (lb/day); S = effluent BOD5 (mg/L) |
5.4 Aeration Systems
| Type | Performance |
|---|---|
| Coarse bubble diffusers | Oxygen transfer: 4-8%; SOTE: 8-12%; energy: 35-50 hp/1000 lb O2/day |
| Fine bubble diffusers | Oxygen transfer: 8-15%; SOTE: 18-30%; energy: 20-35 hp/1000 lb O2/day |
| Mechanical surface | Oxygen transfer: 2-4 lb O2/hp-hr; power: 0.5-1.5 hp/1000 ft³ |
| Air requirement | 1000-1500 ft³ air/lb BOD5 removed (diffused systems) |
5.5 Secondary Clarifiers
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Surface overflow rate | 400-600 gpd/ft² (average); 1000-1200 gpd/ft² (peak) |
| Solids loading | 20-30 lb/ft²-day (average); 40-50 lb/ft²-day (peak) |
| Depth | 12-15 ft |
| Detention time | 2-4 hours at average flow |
| Weir loading | 10,000-15,000 gpd/ft |
| RAS rate | Calculated from SVI and MLSS to maintain solids balance |
6. Secondary Treatment - Attached Growth
6.1 Trickling Filters
| Type | Design Parameters |
|---|---|
| Low rate | Hydraulic: 1-4 MGD/ac; organic: 5-25 lb BOD5/1000 ft³-day; depth: 6-8 ft; recycle: none |
| High rate | Hydraulic: 10-40 MGD/ac; organic: 25-90 lb BOD5/1000 ft³-day; depth: 3-6 ft; recycle: 1-4 |
| Rock media | Size: 2-4 inches; void space: 40-50%; depth: 6-8 ft |
| Plastic media | Specific surface: 20-40 ft²/ft³; void space: 90-95%; depth: 15-40 ft |
| BOD5 removal | Low rate: 80-90%; high rate: 65-85%; two-stage: 90-95% |
6.1.1 Design Equations
- NRC Formula: E = 100/(1 + 0.443(W/VF)^0.5); E = efficiency (%), W = BOD5 load (lb/day), V = volume (1000 ft³), F = recirculation factor
- Recirculation factor: F = (1 + R)/(1 + R/10)^2; R = recycle ratio
- Eckenfelder: S_e/S_0 = exp(-K × D/q^n); K = treatability constant, D = depth (ft), q = hydraulic rate (gpm/ft²), n = 0.5
6.2 Rotating Biological Contactors
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Hydraulic loading | 2-4 gpd/ft² of media surface area |
| Organic loading | First stage: 2.5-3.0 lb sBOD5/1000 ft²-day; subsequent: 1.0-2.0 |
| Media submergence | 40% submerged in wastewater |
| Rotational speed | 1-2 rpm |
| Number of stages | 3-4 stages in series for 85% BOD5 removal |
| HRT | 1.5-4 hours total |
7. Nutrient Removal
7.1 Biological Nitrogen Removal
7.1.1 Nitrification
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Reaction | NH4+ + 2O2 → NO3- + 2H+ + H2O |
| Oxygen requirement | 4.57 lb O2/lb NH4-N oxidized |
| Alkalinity consumed | 7.14 lb CaCO3/lb NH4-N oxidized |
| SRT required | 8-15 days (depends on temperature); minimum 3-4 days at 20°C |
| Temperature effect | Rate doubles every 10°C; inhibited below 5°C |
| pH optimum | 7.5-8.5; inhibited below pH 6.5 |
| DO requirement | Minimum 2.0 mg/L; optimum > 2.5 mg/L |
7.1.2 Denitrification
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Reaction | NO3- + organic C → N2 + CO2 + H2O (anoxic conditions) |
| DO level | < 0.5="" mg/l="" for="" anoxic=""> |
| Carbon source | BOD5/TKN ratio: 4-5:1 for complete denitrification; methanol: 2.5-3.0 lb/lb NO3-N |
| Alkalinity produced | 3.57 lb CaCO3/lb NO3-N reduced |
| Denitrification rate | 0.03-0.11 lb NO3-N/lb MLVSS-day (20°C) |
| HRT anoxic zone | 2-4 hours |
7.1.3 Process Configurations
| Process | Description |
|---|---|
| Bardenpho (4-stage) | Anoxic-aerobic-anoxic-aerobic; achieves 90-95% nitrogen removal |
| Modified Ludzack-Ettinger | Anoxic zone first with RAS, then aerobic; 70-80% nitrogen removal |
| Step feed | Influent split between anoxic zones; 80-85% nitrogen removal |
| Oxidation ditch | Simultaneous nitrification/denitrification in aerobic-anoxic zones |
7.2 Biological Phosphorus Removal
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Anaerobic zone HRT | 1-2 hours; strictly anaerobic (no DO or nitrate) |
| Aerobic zone HRT | 3-6 hours for P uptake |
| BOD5/P ratio | Minimum 15-20:1 for effective biological P removal |
| P removal | 1-2 mg P/L effluent; 80-90% removal |
| SRT | 3-12 days (shorter SRT favors P removal) |
7.2.1 Enhanced BPR Processes
- A2O Process: Anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic; removes N and P simultaneously
- Phoredox: Anaerobic-aerobic configuration; 80-90% P removal
- VIP (Virginia Initiative Plant): Anaerobic selector with aerobic zone
- UCT (University of Cape Town): RAS to anoxic zone to protect anaerobic zone from nitrate
7.3 Chemical Phosphorus Removal
| Chemical | Dosage & Performance |
|---|---|
| Alum (Al2(SO4)3) | Molar ratio Al:P = 1.5-2.5:1; dose: 100-300 mg/L; produces 0.44 lb sludge/lb alum |
| Ferric chloride (FeCl3) | Molar ratio Fe:P = 1.5-2.5:1; dose: 70-200 mg/L; produces 1.6 lb sludge/lb Fe |
| Lime (CaO) | Dose: 200-500 mg/L; high pH (9-11) required; produces 2-4 lb sludge/lb lime |
| Feed point | Primary influent, aeration basin, or secondary effluent for polishing |
8. Tertiary Treatment and Disinfection
8.1 Filtration
| Type | Design Parameters |
|---|---|
| Rapid sand filter | Rate: 2-6 gpm/ft²; depth: 24-30 inches; ES: 0.45-0.55 mm; backwash: 15-20 gpm/ft² |
| Dual media | Sand (12 in) + anthracite (18 in); rate: 4-6 gpm/ft²; ES sand: 0.5 mm, anthracite: 1.0 mm |
| Traveling bridge | Continuous backwash; rate: 3-5 gpm/ft²; media depth: 6-12 inches |
| Cloth disk filter | 10-25 micron pore size; rate: 2-5 gpm/ft²; TSS < 5="" mg/l=""> |
| Membrane (MF/UF) | 0.1-0.01 micron pore size; flux: 40-60 gfd; TSS < 1="" mg/l,="" turbidity="">< 0.1=""> |
8.2 Chlorination
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Chlorine dose | 5-15 mg/L (secondary effluent); 2-8 mg/L (filtered effluent) |
| Contact time | 15-30 minutes at peak flow; CT value: 450 mg-min/L (2-log virus removal) |
| Residual | 0.5-1.0 mg/L free chlorine; 1.0-2.0 mg/L combined chlorine |
| Breakpoint | 7.6-10:1 weight ratio Cl2:NH3-N for complete oxidation of ammonia |
| Dechlorination | SO2 dose: 0.9 mg/mg Cl2; sodium bisulfite: 1.4 mg/mg Cl2 |
8.3 UV Disinfection
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| UV dose | 30-100 mJ/cm² for secondary effluent; 16-30 mJ/cm² for filtered effluent |
| Wavelength | 254 nm (optimal germicidal wavelength) |
| TSS requirement | < 30="" mg/l;="">< 10="" mg/l="" for="" reliable=""> |
| Transmittance | Minimum 55-65% UVT at 254 nm |
| Contact time | 10-20 seconds |
| Power requirement | 20-40 W per 1000 gallons treated |
8.4 Other Disinfection Methods
| Method | Key Parameters |
|---|---|
| Ozone | Dose: 5-20 mg/L; contact: 10-20 min; no residual; effective virus inactivation |
| Peracetic acid | Dose: 2-8 mg/L; contact: 15-30 min; less DBP formation than chlorine |
9. Sludge Processing
9.1 Thickening
| Type | Performance |
|---|---|
| Gravity thickening (primary) | Loading: 20-40 lb/ft²-day; detention: 1-2 days; thickened: 5-10% solids |
| Gravity thickening (WAS) | Loading: 4-8 lb/ft²-day; detention: 1-2 days; thickened: 2-3% solids |
| Dissolved air flotation | Loading: 10-20 lb/ft²-hr; A/S ratio: 0.02-0.06; thickened WAS: 3-6% solids |
| Centrifuge thickening | Polymer: 2-8 lb/ton; capture: 90-98%; thickened: 4-7% solids |
| Gravity belt thickener | Hydraulic: 50-200 gpm/m width; polymer: 2-6 lb/ton; thickened: 4-6% solids |
9.2 Anaerobic Digestion
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Mesophilic temperature | 85-100°F (30-38°C); optimum 95°F (35°C) |
| Thermophilic temperature | 120-135°F (49-57°C) |
| HRT | 15-20 days (mesophilic); 10-15 days (thermophilic) |
| Solids loading | 0.04-0.16 lb VSS/ft³-day (standard rate); 0.2-0.4 (high rate) |
| VS reduction | 45-60% |
| Gas production | 12-18 ft³/lb VS destroyed; 60-70% methane content; 600-700 Btu/ft³ |
| pH | 6.8-7.4 optimal; alkalinity: 2000-4000 mg/L as CaCO3 |
| Mixing | Gas recirculation: 20-30 cfm/1000 ft³; mechanical: 0.07-0.2 hp/1000 ft³ |
| Heating requirement | 400-800 Btu/lb dry solids fed |
9.3 Aerobic Digestion
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| SRT | 15-20 days (20°C); 40-60 days (15°C) |
| Solids loading | 0.1-0.3 lb VSS/ft³-day |
| DO | Maintain 1-2 mg/L minimum |
| VS reduction | 35-50% |
| Oxygen requirement | 1.6-2.3 lb O2/lb VS destroyed |
| Alkalinity | Supplement if pH drops below 6.0 |
9.4 Dewatering
| Method | Performance |
|---|---|
| Belt filter press | Hydraulic: 100-350 lb/m-hr; polymer: 6-15 lb/ton; cake: 18-28% solids; capture: 90-98% |
| Centrifuge | Hydraulic: 300-800 lb/hr; polymer: 10-20 lb/ton; cake: 18-30% solids; capture: 90-95% |
| Filter press (plate) | Pressure: 100-225 psi; cycle: 2-4 hr; cake: 30-45% solids; capture: 95-99% |
| Drying beds | Loading: 15-30 lb/ft²-yr; depth: 8-12 inches; dry time: 10-30 days; cake: 20-30% solids |
9.5 Sludge Production Estimates
| Source | Production Rate |
|---|---|
| Primary sludge | 0.25-0.35 lb TSS/lb BOD5 removed; 4-7% solids; 50-60% VS/TS |
| WAS (conventional) | 0.4-0.6 lb TSS/lb BOD5 removed; 0.8-1.2% solids; 70-80% VS/TS |
| WAS (extended aeration) | 0.2-0.3 lb TSS/lb BOD5 removed; 0.8-1.2% solids; 60-70% VS/TS |
| Trickling filter | 0.15-0.25 lb TSS/lb BOD5 removed; 1-4% solids |
10. Advanced Treatment Processes
10.1 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| MLSS | 8,000-15,000 mg/L (higher than conventional AS) |
| SRT | 10-30 days |
| HRT | 3-6 hours (shorter than conventional) |
| F/M ratio | 0.05-0.15 lb BOD5/lb MLVSS-day |
| Flux | 10-25 gfd (low pressure); 35-60 gfd (high pressure) |
| Pore size | 0.04-0.4 microns (MF/UF membranes) |
| Effluent quality | TSS < 1="" mg/l;="" turbidity="">< 0.2="" ntu;="" bod5="">< 5=""> |
10.2 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR)
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Media fill ratio | 40-70% of reactor volume |
| HRT | 1-3 hours (BOD removal); 2-4 hours (nitrification) |
| Organic loading | 2-6 lb COD/1000 ft²-day |
| DO | Maintain > 2 mg/L |
| BOD5 removal | 85-95% |
10.3 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
| Phase | Duration & Description |
|---|---|
| Fill | 0.5-2 hours; influent added with or without aeration |
| React | 2-5 hours; aeration and mixing |
| Settle | 0.5-1.5 hours; quiescent settling |
| Decant | 0.5-1 hour; effluent withdrawal |
| Idle | 0.25-1 hour; waste sludge, prepare for next cycle |
| Total cycle time | 4-8 hours; 3-6 cycles per day |
| Volume exchange | 25-40% per cycle |
11. Odor and Corrosion Control
11.1 Hydrogen Sulfide Generation
| Parameter | Information |
|---|---|
| Critical conditions | Anaerobic, warm temperature, long detention time, high sulfate concentration |
| Pomeroy equation | H2S (mg/L) = (ΔS × f)/(1 + 10^(pH-pKa)); ΔS = sulfide produced, f = fraction dissolved |
| pKa of H2S | 7.0 at 20°C; below pH 7, predominantly H2S gas |
| Concrete corrosion | Sulfuric acid formation from H2S oxidation; 1-10 mm/yr loss rate |
11.2 Odor Control Methods
| Method | Application & Performance |
|---|---|
| Chemical addition | Chlorine: 2-10 mg/L; H2O2: 10-100 mg/L; ferric chloride: 10-50 mg/L to prevent H2S |
| Air stripping | 1-3 air changes per minute in wet well; requires odor treatment |
| Activated carbon | Contact time: 2-6 seconds; capacity: 0.1-0.3 lb H2S/lb carbon |
| Biofilters | Contact time: 30-60 seconds; media depth: 3-4 ft; removal: 90-99% |
| Chemical scrubbers | NaOH or NaOCl solution; pH 8-10; removal: 95-99%; contact time: 1-3 seconds |
12. Process Control and Monitoring
12.1 Key Operating Parameters
| Parameter | Control Range & Action |
|---|---|
| DO (aeration) | 1.5-2.5 mg/L for BOD removal; > 2.0 mg/L for nitrification; adjust blower output |
| pH | 6.5-8.5 optimal; < 6.5="" or=""> 9.0 inhibits biological processes |
| Temperature | Optimum 15-35°C; kinetics slow below 10°C; adjust SRT for temperature |
| SVI | 80-150 mL/g good settling; > 200 mL/g indicates bulking; adjust F/M or add polymer |
| MCRT (SRT) | Adjust waste rate to maintain target SRT; verify daily calculations |
| RAS rate | Target MLSS = RAS concentration × (Q_r/(Q + Q_r)); adjust pump speed |
| Effluent TSS | < 30="" mg/l="" for="" secondary;="" elevated="" tss="" indicates="" clarifier=""> |
12.2 Common Operational Problems
| Problem | Cause & Correction |
|---|---|
| Sludge bulking | Low F/M, low DO, nutrient deficiency, filamentous growth; increase F/M, add RAS chlorination |
| Rising sludge | Denitrification in clarifier; decrease sludge blanket depth, increase RAS rate |
| Pin floc | High F/M, old sludge, toxic shock; adjust F/M, check for toxicity |
| Foam/scum | Young sludge, grease, surfactants; increase SRT, surface spray |
| High effluent BOD | Insufficient aeration, low MLSS, short SRT; increase air, adjust waste rate |
| Nitrification failure | Low SRT, low temperature, low pH, inhibition; increase SRT, check alkalinity and toxins |
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