Path to Commonwealth Government

The path to Commonwealth Government represents a critical transition period in Philippine history during American colonial rule, marking the shift from direct U.S. governance toward eventual independence. This topic covers the key legislative acts, political movements, and institutional developments that led to the establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935. Expect questions on specific laws, timelines, leaders, and the structural changes in governance during this period.

Core Concepts

The Jones Law of 1916 (Philippine Autonomy Act)

The Jones Law was the first official U.S. commitment to Philippine independence, replacing the Philippine Bill of 1902. It established a bicameral legislature and gave Filipinos more autonomy in governance while maintaining U.S. sovereignty.

How it worked: The law created an elected Philippine Legislature consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, both with elected Filipino members. The U.S. retained the Governor-General position and veto power over legislation. The preamble explicitly stated that independence would be granted "as soon as a stable government can be established," making it the first law to formally promise Philippine independence.

Key facts about the Jones Law:

• Enacted on August 29, 1916
• Replaced the Philippine Commission with an all-Filipino legislature
• Created the Senate (24 members) and House of Representatives (elected members)
• Filipinized the government by allowing Filipinos to hold most executive positions except Governor-General
• Established the Council of State to advise the Governor-General
• Guaranteed a Bill of Rights for Filipinos
• Required regular reports to U.S. Congress on progress toward independence

When to Use This

• When a question asks about the first U.S. law promising Philippine independence - Jones Law is the answer, not the Philippine Bill of 1902
• When distinguishing between the Philippine Commission system and the bicameral legislature - Jones Law created the bicameral system
• When identifying which law gave Filipinos control over both houses of legislature - Jones Law replaced the appointed Philippine Commission
• When asked about the legal basis for Filipinization of government positions during the American period

The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 (Philippine Independence Act)

The Tydings-McDuffie Act was the law that definitively set the date and terms for Philippine independence. It provided for a 10-year transition period under a Commonwealth government before full independence.

How it worked: The law authorized the creation of a Philippine Commonwealth after Filipinos drafted and ratified a constitution. The Commonwealth would have internal autonomy but foreign affairs and defense remained under U.S. control. After 10 years, full independence would be granted. This law superseded the earlier Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, which had similar provisions but was rejected by the Philippine Senate.

Key facts about Tydings-McDuffie:

• Signed into law on March 24, 1934
• Set independence date for July 4, 1946 (10 years after Commonwealth establishment)
• Authorized a Constitutional Convention to draft the Commonwealth Constitution
• Required U.S. President approval of the Philippine Constitution
• Maintained U.S. control over foreign affairs and defense during the Commonwealth period
• Limited Filipino immigration to the U.S. to 50 persons annually
• Imposed trade restrictions that would gradually reduce preferential treatment
• Required a plebiscite to ratify the constitution before Commonwealth could be established

When to Use This

• When asked which law definitively granted independence - Tydings-McDuffie is the final and accepted law
• When distinguishing between Hare-Hawes-Cutting and Tydings-McDuffie - both promised independence, but Tydings-McDuffie was accepted
• When identifying the 10-year transition period or Commonwealth timeframe (1935-1945 intended, extended to 1946 due to WWII)
• When questions involve immigration restrictions or economic provisions during the transition to independence

Comparison of Major Independence Laws

The 1935 Philippine Constitution

The 1935 Constitution was the fundamental law of the Philippine Commonwealth, drafted by a Constitutional Convention and approved by both Filipino voters and the U.S. President. It established the framework for Commonwealth governance and eventual independent government.

How it worked: A Constitutional Convention composed of elected delegates convened in 1934 to draft the constitution. The draft was submitted to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt for approval, then ratified by Filipino voters in a plebiscite on May 14, 1935. The constitution took effect when the Commonwealth was inaugurated on November 15, 1935.

Key facts about the 1935 Constitution:

• Drafted by the 1934 Constitutional Convention with 202 delegates
• Claro M. Recto was the principal author and chairman of the Committee on Style
• Ratified by plebiscite on May 14, 1935 with overwhelming approval (1,213,046 for; 44,352 against)
• Established a presidential system of government with three branches
• President elected for 6-year term without re-election
• Created a unicameral National Assembly initially (changed to bicameral Congress in 1940)
• Included a comprehensive Bill of Rights
• Required U.S. President approval before taking effect
• Remained in effect until 1973 (including the post-independence period)

When to Use This

• When asked about the legal basis of Commonwealth government - the 1935 Constitution provided this framework
• When distinguishing between who drafted vs. who approved the constitution - Filipinos drafted it, but U.S. President had to approve
• When identifying the form of government during the Commonwealth - presidential system with separation of powers
• When questions involve the Bill of Rights or basic governmental structure of the Commonwealth period

The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act of 1932

The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act was the first U.S. law to set a definite timetable for Philippine independence, but it was rejected by the Philippine Senate due to controversial provisions. Understanding why this law failed is critical for distinguishing it from the Tydings-McDuffie Act.

How it worked: The law provided for Philippine independence after a 10-year Commonwealth transition period, similar to Tydings-McDuffie. However, it contained provisions on military bases and economic relations that Filipino leaders found objectionable. Manuel L. Quezon led the opposition against the law, while Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas (who had secured the law's passage in Washington) supported it.

Key facts about Hare-Hawes-Cutting:

• Passed by U.S. Congress on December 30, 1932 (over President Hoover's veto)
• Rejected by Philippine Senate on October 17, 1933
• Main objections: retention of U.S. military bases, unclear provisions on naval reservations, immigration limits
• Secured by the Osmeña-Roxas mission to the United States
• Led to political rivalry between Quezon (anti) and Osmeña (pro) factions
• Quezon sent his own mission to Washington to negotiate a better law (resulting in Tydings-McDuffie)
• Virtually identical to Tydings-McDuffie except for military base provisions

When to Use This

• When a question asks which independence law was rejected - Hare-Hawes-Cutting is the answer
• When identifying political conflicts during the American period - Quezon vs. Osmeña over this law
• When asked why Filipinos went back to Washington after securing an independence law - to get better terms
• When distinguishing similar laws - both Hare-Hawes-Cutting and Tydings-McDuffie promised 10-year transition, but only Tydings-McDuffie was accepted

Establishment of the Commonwealth Government

The Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, beginning the 10-year transition period to full independence. Manuel L. Quezon became the first Commonwealth President, with Sergio Osmeña as Vice President.

How it worked: After ratification of the 1935 Constitution, national elections were held in September 1935. Quezon won decisively. The Commonwealth was inaugurated in ceremonies at the Legislative Building in Manila. The U.S. maintained sovereignty over foreign affairs and defense, but Filipinos had autonomy in internal governance. The Commonwealth government operated until Japanese occupation in 1942, then continued in exile, and resumed in 1945 until independence in 1946.

Key facts about Commonwealth establishment:

• Commonwealth inaugurated on November 15, 1935
• Manuel L. Quezon - first Commonwealth President
• Sergio Osmeña - first Commonwealth Vice President
• Frank Murphy - last Governor-General, became first U.S. High Commissioner
• Elections held on September 17, 1935
• Quezon won with approximately 68% of votes against Emilio Aguinaldo and others
• Commonwealth had its own constitution, elected officials, and internal autonomy
• Original independence date: July 4, 1946 (10 years from 1936)
• Commonwealth government-in-exile operated from Washington D.C. during WWII (1942-1945)

When to Use This

• When asked about who was the first Commonwealth President - Manuel L. Quezon (not Aguinaldo, who was a candidate but lost)
• When identifying the date of Commonwealth inauguration - November 15, 1935
• When distinguishing between Governor-General and High Commissioner - Murphy was the last of the former, first of the latter
• When questions involve the timeline from constitution ratification to Commonwealth establishment

Key Political Leaders and Their Roles

Understanding who advocated for what during the path to Commonwealth is essential, as questions often test knowledge of specific leaders' positions and contributions.

Manuel L. Quezon:

• Led opposition to Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act
• Headed mission to secure Tydings-McDuffie Act
• First Commonwealth President (1935-1944, died in exile)
• Advocated for "immediate independence" even if imperfect

Sergio Osmeña:

• Led Osmeña-Roxas mission that secured Hare-Hawes-Cutting
• First Commonwealth Vice President
• Became Commonwealth President after Quezon's death (1944-1946)
• Led government when Philippines was liberated from Japan

Manuel Roxas:

• Partnered with Osmeña to secure Hare-Hawes-Cutting
• Later allied with Quezon
• First President of independent Philippines (1946-1948)

When to Use This

• When asked who opposed Hare-Hawes-Cutting - Quezon led the opposition
• When asked who secured Hare-Hawes-Cutting - Osmeña and Roxas mission
• When distinguishing between Commonwealth presidents - Quezon was first, Osmeña succeeded him during WWII
• When identifying who became first president of independent Philippines - Roxas, not Quezon or Osmeña

Comparison of Political Leaders' Positions on Independence

Commonly Tested Scenarios / Pitfalls

1. Scenario: A question presents two independence laws with similar provisions and asks which one was actually implemented as the legal basis for Commonwealth establishment.

Correct Approach: Choose Tydings-McDuffie Act as the law that established the Commonwealth. While Hare-Hawes-Cutting had similar provisions, it was rejected by the Philippine Senate and never implemented.

Check first: Whether the question asks about the law that was accepted and implemented versus the law that was merely passed by U.S. Congress. Hare-Hawes-Cutting passed Congress but was rejected by Filipinos.

Do NOT do first: Do not assume that the earlier law (Hare-Hawes-Cutting) is the answer just because it came first chronologically. The Philippines rejected this law, so it never became the legal basis for Commonwealth government.

Why other options are wrong: Jones Law only promised eventual independence without specifics and didn't create Commonwealth; Philippine Bill of 1902 had no independence promise; Hare-Hawes-Cutting was rejected despite being passed.

2. Scenario: A question asks who was the first President of the Philippines, with options including Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmeña, Manuel Roxas, and Emilio Aguinaldo.

Correct Approach: The answer depends on what "first President" means. Quezon was first Commonwealth President. Roxas was first President of the independent Republic. Aguinaldo was first President of the revolutionary First Republic. Read carefully what the question specifies.

Check first: What qualifier appears before "President" - Commonwealth, Independent Republic, or First Republic. Most NAPOLCOM questions asking about "first President" during American Period refer to Commonwealth President = Quezon.

Do NOT do first: Do not automatically answer Aguinaldo for "first President" questions without checking context. While technically correct for the revolutionary government, if the question is about American Period or Commonwealth, Aguinaldo is wrong.

Why other options are wrong: Osmeña was second Commonwealth President (succeeded Quezon); Roxas was first president after independence, not during Commonwealth; Aguinaldo was president during revolutionary period, not Commonwealth.

3. Scenario: A question asks which law first promised Philippine independence, with options including Philippine Bill of 1902, Jones Law, Hare-Hawes-Cutting, and Tydings-McDuffie.

Correct Approach: Jones Law of 1916 was the first U.S. law to officially promise Philippine independence, even though it didn't set a specific date. Its preamble stated independence would be granted "as soon as a stable government can be established."

Check first: Whether the question asks about "first promise" versus "first definite timetable." Jones Law = first promise (vague). Hare-Hawes-Cutting = first definite timetable (but rejected). Tydings-McDuffie = accepted law with timetable.

Do NOT do first: Do not choose Tydings-McDuffie just because it's the most important independence law. While it's the law that actually led to independence, it wasn't the first to promise it.

Why other options are wrong: Philippine Bill of 1902 contained no independence promise; Hare-Hawes-Cutting and Tydings-McDuffie came later (1932 and 1934); Jones Law was 1916.

4. Scenario: A question asks about the date when the Commonwealth was inaugurated or when it was supposed to end.

Correct Approach: Commonwealth was inaugurated on November 15, 1935 and was supposed to end on July 4, 1946 (10 years later). Full independence was actually granted on this date despite WWII interruption.

Check first: Whether the question asks for inauguration date (November 15, 1935), planned independence date (July 4, 1946), or actual independence date (also July 4, 1946, though delayed by war).

Do NOT do first: Do not calculate 10 years from 1935 and assume 1945 as independence date. The 10-year count started from the Commonwealth establishment, making it 1946. WWII interrupted but didn't change the final date.

Why other options are wrong: 1935 is inauguration, not independence; 1945 would be 10 years from 1935 but the law specified 1946; any date in 1942-1945 falls during Japanese occupation.

5. Scenario: A question asks what governmental structure was created by the Jones Law, with options including unicameral legislature, bicameral legislature, parliamentary system, or presidential system.

Correct Approach: The Jones Law created a bicameral legislature consisting of an elected Senate and House of Representatives, replacing the previous system where the Philippine Commission (appointed) served as the upper house.

Check first: What specific law the question asks about. Jones Law = bicameral legislature under U.S. governance. 1935 Constitution = initially unicameral National Assembly, changed to bicameral Congress in 1940 amendment.

Do NOT do first: Do not confuse the Jones Law's bicameral legislature with the 1935 Constitution's initial unicameral National Assembly. They're different governmental structures from different periods.

Why other options are wrong: Unicameral was the 1935 Constitution's original structure (later changed); parliamentary system was never established during American period; presidential system refers to executive structure, not legislative.

Step-by-Step Procedures or Methods

Task: Determining the correct sequence of events leading to Commonwealth establishment

1. Identify the Jones Law (1916) as the starting point - first promise of independence, creation of bicameral Filipino legislature
2. Recognize the Hare-Hawes-Cutting mission (1932) - Osmeña and Roxas secured the law in Washington
3. Note the rejection of Hare-Hawes-Cutting (October 1933) - Philippine Senate rejected it due to Quezon's opposition
4. Identify Quezon's mission (1933-1934) - sent to negotiate better terms with U.S. Congress
5. Mark the Tydings-McDuffie Act (March 24, 1934) - the accepted independence law
6. Recognize the Constitutional Convention (1934) - drafted the 1935 Constitution
7. Note the plebiscite (May 14, 1935) - Filipino voters ratified the constitution
8. Identify the Commonwealth elections (September 17, 1935) - Quezon elected president
9. Mark the Commonwealth inauguration (November 15, 1935) - official start of Commonwealth government
10. Note the planned independence date (July 4, 1946) - 10 years after Commonwealth, actually achieved despite WWII

Task: Distinguishing between similar laws when answering exam questions

1. Read the question carefully for keywords: "first promise," "rejected," "accepted," "implemented," "Commonwealth basis"
2. If the question asks about "first promise of independence" → Answer: Jones Law (1916)
3. If the question asks about "rejected independence law" → Answer: Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (1932)
4. If the question asks about "legal basis of Commonwealth" or "accepted law" → Answer: Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934)
5. If the question asks about "bicameral legislature creation" during American period → Answer: Jones Law (not 1935 Constitution, which initially created unicameral)
6. Cross-check the date ranges: Jones Law = 1916; Hare-Hawes-Cutting = 1932; Tydings-McDuffie = 1934; 1935 Constitution = 1935
7. Verify who supported what: Quezon opposed Hare-Hawes-Cutting; Osmeña and Roxas supported it; all supported Tydings-McDuffie

Practice Questions

Q1: Which law first officially promised Philippine independence during the American colonial period?
(a) Philippine Bill of 1902
(b) Jones Law of 1916
(c) Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act of 1932
(d) Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934

Ans: (b)
The Jones Law of 1916 was the first U.S. law to officially promise Philippine independence with its preamble stating independence would be granted "as soon as a stable government can be established." The Philippine Bill of 1902 contained no independence promise. While Hare-Hawes-Cutting and Tydings-McDuffie both promised independence with specific timelines, they came later (1932 and 1934 respectively).

Q2: Why was the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act rejected by the Philippine Senate in 1933?
(a) It did not promise independence
(b) It had objectionable provisions on military bases and economic relations
(c) It was vetoed by the U.S. President
(d) Manuel L. Quezon supported it strongly

Ans: (b)
The Philippine Senate rejected Hare-Hawes-Cutting due to provisions on U.S. military bases, unclear naval reservation terms, and immigration restrictions that Filipino leaders, especially Quezon, found objectionable. The act did promise independence, so (a) is wrong. It actually passed over President Hoover's veto, so (c) is wrong. Quezon opposed the act and led the fight for its rejection, so (d) is wrong.

Q3: Who was inaugurated as the first President of the Philippine Commonwealth on November 15, 1935?
(a) Emilio Aguinaldo
(b) Sergio Osmeña
(c) Manuel Roxas
(d) Manuel L. Quezon

Ans: (d)
Manuel L. Quezon was elected and inaugurated as the first Commonwealth President on November 15, 1935. Aguinaldo ran against Quezon but lost the election. Osmeña was elected Vice President, not President. Roxas became the first President of the independent Philippines in 1946, not Commonwealth President.

Q4: The Tydings-McDuffie Act set the date for Philippine independence as:
(a) July 4, 1935
(b) November 15, 1945
(c) July 4, 1946
(d) December 30, 1946

Ans: (c)
The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for a 10-year Commonwealth transition period before independence, setting the date as July 4, 1946. This date was maintained despite WWII interruption. July 4, 1935 would be before the Commonwealth even started. November 15, 1945 is not the specified date. December 30, 1946 is incorrect (December 30 is Rizal Day, not Independence Day under this law).

Q5: What governmental structure did the Jones Law of 1916 create for the Philippines?
(a) A unicameral National Assembly
(b) A bicameral legislature with Senate and House of Representatives
(c) A parliamentary system with Prime Minister
(d) A Philippine Commission appointed by the U.S. President

Ans: (b)
The Jones Law created a bicameral legislature consisting of an elected Philippine Senate and House of Representatives, both with Filipino members. The unicameral National Assembly was created by the 1935 Constitution initially. The Philippines never had a parliamentary system during American period. The Philippine Commission was the system before Jones Law, which the Jones Law replaced.

Q6: A student is reviewing independence laws and sees that both Hare-Hawes-Cutting and Tydings-McDuffie promised a 10-year Commonwealth period. What is the FIRST thing to check when determining which law became the legal basis for the Commonwealth?
(a) Which law was passed first
(b) Which U.S. president signed the law
(c) Which law was accepted by the Philippine Senate
(d) Which law had better economic provisions

Ans: (c)
The first thing to verify is which law was actually accepted by the Philippine Senate. Hare-Hawes-Cutting was rejected despite passing U.S. Congress first, while Tydings-McDuffie was accepted and became the legal basis for Commonwealth. Which law passed first doesn't matter if it was rejected. The U.S. president who signed it is less relevant than Filipino acceptance. While economic provisions influenced the decision, the key distinguishing fact is acceptance versus rejection.

Quick Review

• Jones Law (1916) - first official promise of independence, created bicameral Filipino legislature (Senate and House)
• Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (1932) - first law with definite independence timetable, but REJECTED by Philippine Senate due to military base and economic provisions
• Tydings-McDuffie Act (March 24, 1934) - accepted independence law, authorized Commonwealth, set independence for July 4, 1946 (10 years after Commonwealth)
• 1935 Constitution - drafted by Constitutional Convention, ratified May 14, 1935, approved by U.S. President, established Commonwealth government framework
• Commonwealth inaugurated November 15, 1935 - Quezon as President, Osmeña as Vice President
• Manuel L. Quezon - opposed Hare-Hawes-Cutting, secured Tydings-McDuffie, first Commonwealth President (1935-1944, died in exile)
• Sergio Osmeña - secured Hare-Hawes-Cutting with Roxas, first Vice President, became second Commonwealth President (1944-1946) after Quezon's death
• Frank Murphy - last Governor-General and first U.S. High Commissioner to the Commonwealth
• Independence achieved July 4, 1946 - despite WWII interruption, original date maintained
• Key distinction: Jones Law = first promise (vague); Hare-Hawes-Cutting = first timetable (rejected); Tydings-McDuffie = accepted law (implemented)