Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Class 11 Psychology

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals: description, prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour, and application of knowledge so generated, in an objective manner. Let us try to understand the meaning of these terms.

Description:

• In psychological research, the primary aim is to accurately describe behaviors or phenomena, distinguishing them from others.
• For instance, when studying student study habits, descriptions may include attending classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, and following a study schedule.
• Detailed recording of behaviors aids in proper understanding.

Prediction:

• The goal here is to predict behaviors based on understanding and accurate descriptions.
• By establishing relationships between behaviors and events, researchers can forecast likely behaviors under specific conditions.
• For example, more study time may predict better academic performance.

Explanation:

• Psychological inquiry aims to identify the causal factors influencing behaviors.
• Understanding why behaviors occur helps establish cause-effect relationships.
• Factors influencing behaviors, such as attentiveness in class or study habits, are explored.

Control:

• By understanding the causes of behaviors, researchers can aim to control, enhance, or reduce them.
• Changes in antecedent conditions can lead to changes in behavior.
• Psychological interventions like therapy exemplify control over behaviors.

Application:

• The ultimate goal is to use psychological research to improve people's lives and solve problems.
• Applications include using practices like yoga and meditation to reduce stress and enhance well-being.
• Psychological research also contributes to developing new theories and constructs for further study.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research 

• Science is characterized not by what it studies but by the way it conducts investigations, with the scientific method aiming to explore events or phenomena objectively, systematically, and in a testable manner.
• Objectivity in scientific research means that independent studies by different individuals should ideally lead to similar conclusions, much like how two people measuring the length of a table with the same device would likely reach the same result.
• Scientific research involves a systematic process, encompassing steps such as defining a problem, gathering data, making conclusions, and refining research outcomes and theories.

The steps in conducting scientific research are:

1. Conceptualizing a Problem: Scientific research initiates with a researcher selecting a theme, narrowing down the focus, and formulating specific research questions based on past studies, observations, and personal experiences.
2. Collecting Data: The next step involves developing a research design, making decisions about participants, data collection methods, tools, and procedures, followed by the actual data collection process.
3. Drawing Conclusions: Data collected is then analyzed using statistical methods to interpret the findings, often represented visually through graphs and charts, with the aim of validating hypotheses and deriving conclusions.
4. Revising Research Conclusions: Researchers evaluate whether their findings support initial hypotheses, revising or proposing alternative theories as necessary, making research an ongoing, iterative process.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

• Views human behavior as predictable, influenced by internal and external forces.
• Focuses on observable and measurable behavior, excluding personal feelings and experiences.
• Emphasizes on methods akin to physical sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology.

Interpretive Research Paradigm:

• Values understanding over prediction and explanation.
• Recognizes the complexity and variability of human behavior.
• Highlights the subjective interpretation of reality, giving importance to personal meanings and contexts.
• Advocates for exploring human experiences without disrupting their natural flow.

Personal Reflection and Psychological Inquiry:

• Encourages self-analysis of personal experiences, thoughts, and behaviors.
• Stresses the importance of psychology in understanding one's own actions and motivations.
• Promotes reflection on personal insights and experiences for self-understanding.

Nature of Psychological Data

• You may want to consider how psychological data are different as compared to other sciences.
• Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods.
• The information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals' covert or overt behaviour, their subjective experiences, and mental processes.
• Data form an important input in psychological enquiry, approximating reality to some extent and providing an opportunity to verify or falsify ideas, hunches, notions, etc.
• Data are not independent entities; they are located in a context and tied to the method and theory that govern the data collection process.
• Data are influenced by the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behaviour occurs.
• People behave differently in various situations based on factors such as being alone or in a group, at home or in the office.
• The method of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc.) and respondent characteristics influence the nature and quality of data.
• Data do not inherently speak about reality; inferences must be made by researchers placing data within its proper context.

Types of Data in Psychology

1. Demographic Information: Includes personal details like name, age, gender, birth order, education, occupation, marital status, and more.
2. Physical Information: Involves details about ecological conditions, housing, transportation, and facilities available.
3. Physiological Data: Includes physical, physiological, and psychological data like height, weight, heart rate, EEG readings, blood pressure, and more.
4. Psychological Information: Relates to intelligence, personality, emotions, psychological disorders, consciousness, and subjective experiences.

Some Important Methods in Psychology

Psychologists employ various methods like Observation, Experimental, Correlational, Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study to gather data.

1. Observational Method

• Observation is a potent tool in psychological research, used to describe behavior effectively.
• A scientific observation involves:
  1. Selection: Psychologists choose specific behaviors to observe.
  2. Recording: Researchers record observed behaviors using methods like tallies, notes, photographs, or video recordings.
  3. Analysis of Data: After recording observations, psychologists analyze the data to derive meaning.
• Effective observation requires skill, including knowing what to look for, whom to observe, when and where to observe, how to record observations, and methods for analyzing behavior.

Types of Observation:

1. Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation: Naturalistic observation occurs in real-life settings. The observer does not try to control or manipulate the situation. This type of observation happens in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc while controlled observation is conducted in controlled environments like laboratories.
2. Non-Participant vs Participant Observation: In non-participant observation involves observing from a distance. Researchers watch subjects without actively participating in the situation. There is a risk that the act of observing may alter the behavior of those being observed. While participant observation involves becoming part of the group being observed. It involves building rapport with the group to be accepted as a member.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• The observation method allows researchers to study people and their behavior in natural settings as it unfolds.
• The observation method is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and can be influenced by the observer's biases.
• Observers should record behavior as it occurs without interpreting it during the observation itself.

2. Experimental Method

• Experiments establish cause-effect relationships between variables in a controlled setting.
• Changes in one factor are studied for their effects on another factor, while keeping other factors constant.
• Cause refers to the manipulated event, while effect is the resulting behavior change.

The Concept of Variable

• A variable is any stimulus or event that varies and can be measured.
• Attributes of objects, rather than objects themselves, are variables.
• Variables can be of many types, including independent and dependent variables.
• Independent variables are manipulated by researchers in experiments, affecting dependent variables.
• Dependent variables represent the phenomenon being studied.
• Both types of variables are chosen based on the researcher's theoretical interest.

Experimental and Control Groups

• Experiments involve experimental groups exposed to manipulated variables and control groups without these manipulations.
• Conditions are kept constant for both groups, except for the manipulated variable.
• Control techniques are used to minimize the impact of extraneous variables.

Strength and Limitation

• Well-designed experiments offer convincing evidence of cause-effect relationships.
• However, they are often criticized for lacking external validity and real-world applicability.
• Laboratory experiments face challenges in controlling all relevant variables and may not always be feasible.

Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

Field Experiments

• If a researcher desires high generalizability or needs to study phenomena not replicable in labs, they may opt for field settings.
• Typically more time-consuming and costly than lab experiments.
• Many variables are difficult to manipulate in lab settings.

Quasi Experimentation

• In quasi experiments, the independent variable is chosen rather than actively manipulated by the researcher.
• This method involves manipulating an independent variable in a natural setting using naturally occurring groups for experimental and control groups.

4. Correlational Research

• The strength and direction of the relationship between two variables are indicated by the correlation coefficient.
• A positive correlation implies that as one variable (X) increases, the other variable (Y) also increases.
• Conversely, a negative correlation suggests that as X goes up, Y goes down.
• Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.0 to 1.0, indicating positive, negative, or zero correlation.
• Positive correlation: both variables increase or decrease together.
• Negative correlation: one variable increases while the other decreases.
• Zero correlation: no significant relationship between variables.

5. Survey Research

• Originally used for studying opinions, attitudes, and social facts.
• Evolved to infer causal relationships.
• Techniques include personal interviews, questionnaires, telephonic surveys, and observations.

Personal Interviews

• Interviews are common for gathering information, opinions, attitudes, and reasons for behavior.
• Structured interviews have predetermined questions and fixed responses.
• Unstructured interviews allow flexibility in questioning and responses.
• Types: Individual to Individual, Individual to Group, Group to Individuals, Group to Group.

Questionnaire Survey

• Questionnaires are a common, versatile, and cost-effective method of collecting information. 
• They consist of predetermined questions that respondents answer in writing. Responses can be open-ended or closed-ended.
• One challenge of mailed questionnaires is low response rates.

Questionnaire Survey

Telephone Survey

• Telephone surveys are efficient but may lead to uncooperative or superficial responses due to the lack of face-to-face interaction. 
• This can introduce bias into the results.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Researchers should carefully choose the appropriate method based on their research goals. Surveys enable quick data collection from a large number of people and provide rapid insights into public opinions.
• However, respondents may provide inaccurate information due to memory issues or social desirability bias, where they may tailor their responses to please the researcher.

6. Psychological Testing

• Assessment of individual differences has always been a key focus in psychology.
• Psychologists create various tests to evaluate human characteristics like intelligence, personality, and interests for purposes such as selection, training, and diagnosis.
• A psychological test typically consists of questions (items) related to specific human attributes, designed for particular age groups.
• A psychological test is an objective tool used to compare individuals' mental or behavioral traits.
• The construction of a test involves steps like item analysis, and assessing reliability, validity, and norms.
• Reliability measures the consistency of scores over different test administrations, while validity ensures a test measures what it claims to measure.
• Standardization involves developing norms for tests to compare an individual's performance with a group.

Types of Tests

• Psychological tests are categorized based on language, mode of administration, and difficulty level.
• Verbal, non-verbal, and performance tests are classified based on language requirements.
• Tests can be individual (face-to-face administration) or group tests (administered to multiple individuals simultaneously).
• Tests can also be speed tests (with time limits) or power tests (without time limits).
• Tests should be chosen carefully, considering various factors alongside test data, like background and interests.

7. Case Study

• Case studies involve in-depth examination of unique cases to gain insights into various phenomena.
• Researchers focus on individuals, groups, institutions, or events to gather rich information using multiple methods like interviews and observations.
• Case studies have been instrumental in understanding human behavior and development, providing valuable research tools in fields like clinical psychology.
• While informative, caution is advised in generalizing findings from individual case studies due to validity challenges.
• Combining multiple research methods enhances the reliability and depth of study results.

Analysis of Data

• After collecting data, researchers need to draw conclusions through analysis.
• Two main approaches for data analysis are quantitative and qualitative methods.

Quantitative Method

• Involves close-ended questions in tests, questionnaires, and structured interviews.
• Responses are usually scaled to indicate strength and magnitude.
• Answers are assigned numerical values for scoring.
• Calculations of scores help in understanding participants' levels on specific attributes.
• Statistical methods such as central tendency, variability, and correlation are utilized for analysis.

Qualitative Method

• Focuses on the complexity of human experiences.
• Utilizes methods like Narrative Analysis to understand experiences.
• Data in qualitative methods are descriptive and cannot be quantified.
• Content analysis is used to identify thematic categories in qualitative data.

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

1. Lack of True Zero Point: In physical sciences, measurements start from zero but psychological measurements lack a true zero point. Psychologists arbitrarily decide a point as zero and all scores obtained are relative, not absolute.
2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tests are context-specific. Tests designed for one group may not be suitable for another due to differences in familiarity with stimuli. Tests must be modified for different contexts.
3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Qualitative data interpretation is subjective and varies among researchers and participants. It is recommended to involve multiple investigators in fieldwork and reach a consensus on interpretations.

Ethical Issues

In psychological research, ethical guidelines are crucial to ensure the well-being and rights of participants. Several key ethical principles include:

Ethical Issues

1. Voluntary Participation: Participants should willingly choose to take part in a study without coercion. They must have the freedom to withdraw at any point without facing repercussions.
2. Informed Consent: Prior to data collection, participants must be fully informed about the study procedures and any potential risks involved. Consent should be obtained before any data is gathered.
3. Debriefing: After the study, participants should receive clarifications to ensure they understand the research fully. Debriefing is particularly important when deception is involved to mitigate any negative effects.
4. Sharing Results: Researchers are obligated to share study outcomes with participants. This fosters transparency and allows participants to provide feedback, potentially leading to valuable insights.
5. Confidentiality of Data: Protecting participants' privacy is paramount. Researchers must ensure data confidentiality and take necessary steps to safeguard participants' identities throughout and after the study.