NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History - Bricks, Beads and Bones

Answer in 100-150 words

Q1: List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
Ans:

Q2: How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice? 
Ans: Following examples can be cited to show the existence of social and economic variations: in the Harappan society:
(i) Study of burials is one example. In the Harappan sites, the deads were usually laid in pits. There were differences in the Way burial pits were made. At some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks. But these may not be taken as an indication of social differences.
(ii) In some graves, pottery and ornaments have been found. Jewelry has been found from the graves of men and women as well. These findings can point out social and economic differences. ‘
(iii) The artifacts have been classified into two categories, Utilitarian and Luxurious. Objects of daily uses and objects made of ordinary materials made of clay or stone come under the utilitarian category. Ordinary articles consisted of querns, pottery, flesh-rubbers, and needles. These have been found distributed throughout settlements.
(iv) Objects of luxuries were rare and made from precious, non-local materials. The technology used was advanced and complicated. Little pots of faience were considered precious. They were also not easy to make. These show the existence of social and economic variations in the Harappan society.

Q3: Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans: Yes, I agree with that the drainage system in Harappan cities which indicates the town planning. I can cite the following reasons in support of my answer.

• The drainage system needed planning for its execution. It seems that first drainages were laid out and then houses were built along with the drains. Every house was supposed to have at least one wall along a street to allow the domestic wastewater to flow out in the street drains. The plans of the lower town show that roads and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
• It appears that human settlement was made by planning from the beginning. The city was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms.
• Bricks, sundried or baked, were of standard ratio. The length and breadth of bricks were of four times and twice the height respectively These bricks were used at all the settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.

Q4: List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan Civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
Ans: Making beads was an important craft of the Harappan people. It was mainly prevalent in Chanhudaro.
Materials for making beads included beautiful red colored stone-like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite. Besides these, the use of copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, terracotta or burnt clay was also used. The process of making beads Making of beads differed as per the materials used. Beads had variety*of shapes. They did not make geometrical shapes like one made of harder stones.
Nodules were to be chipped for making rough shapes. They were finally flaked into the final form.
By firing the yellowish raw material, the red color of camelina was obtained. Grinding, polishing, and drilling constituted the last phase. Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira were famous for specialized drilling.

Q5: Look at figure 1.30 and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artifacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
Ans: Following observations can be obtained after looking at the figure:

• A body has been kept in North-south direction in a pit,
• Many graves contain pottery and ornaments which include jar.
• Yes, jewelry like bangles is there on the body.
• Yes, this indicates towards the sex of the skeleton, Le. it is the body of a woman.

It is concluded that there were great social or economic differences among the people living within the area of the Harappan Civilisation. But as a whole, it appears that the Harappan did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

Write a short essay (About 500 words) on the following

Mohenjo-Daro, one of the most significant archaeological sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, offers a remarkable insight into the urban planning and socio-economic structure of one of the world’s earliest major urban centers. This site, along with Harappa, forms the crux of understanding the Harappan Civilization, which thrived around 2600-1900 BCE.

Urban Layout and Architecture

• Mohenjodaro’s layout is a testament to the advanced urban planning techniques of the Harappans. The city was strategically divided into two main areas: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel, positioned on a higher elevation, likely served administrative or ceremonial purposes. It housed major public buildings, such as the Great Bath, granaries, and assembly halls, suggesting a focus on communal activity and ritualistic or governmental administration. The Great Bath, a large rectangular tank surrounded by corridors on all four sides, is particularly notable for its waterproofing and might have been used for religious purification rites.
• The Lower Town, characterized by its residential and commercial spaces, showcases a grid-like street layout, indicating an early example of city planning. Houses, often built with standardized burnt bricks, featured courtyards, private wells, and advanced drainage systems, including bathrooms and intricate sewage networks. This emphasis on sanitation highlights the Harappans' prioritization of hygiene and public health.

Economic Activities

• The economic framework of Mohenjodaro was highly advanced, with a strong emphasis on trade, both local and with distant regions. Artifacts such as seals, beads, and weights suggest a complex trade network. The presence of various raw materials and craft products indicates extensive manufacturing activities, including bead-making, metalwork, and pottery, crucial for both domestic use and trade purposes.

Social Organization

• The city's architecture and artifacts also provide insights into its social structure. The standardization across the city in terms of brick size and construction techniques suggests some level of social organization and possibly centralized control. The variety in the size and elaborateness of the houses might indicate social stratification. However, the relatively uniform urban design and the absence of palatial structures suggest a more egalitarian society than those contemporaneously existing in Mesopotamia or Egypt.

Cultural Aspects

• Culturally, Mohenjodaro was a hub of artistic and religious activity. Numerous terracotta figurines, pottery, and ornaments found at the site reflect a rich cultural life and craftsmanship. Seals depicting ritualistic symbols and script suggest a complex belief system and social communication, although the script remains undeciphered, leaving much about their religious life and administrative systems to speculation.

Technological Innovations

• Technological advancements are evident in the city’s hydraulic engineering, showcased by its sophisticated water management systems, including reservoirs and drainage systems capable of supporting a large urban population. These systems were crucial not only for sanitation but also for managing the water supply in an arid climate.

Conclusion

Overall, Mohenjodaro offers an extraordinary glimpse into early urban living with its sophisticated planning, social organization, economic vitality, and technological prowess. The site's remarkable preservation allows archaeologists and historians to piece together the life ways of the Harappan people, providing a profound understanding of one of the earliest civilizations in human history.

Q7: List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
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Q8: Discuss, how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
Ans: 

Archaeology is the scientific study of the human past through material remains, aiming to reconstruct and interpret ancient ways of life. The process of reconstructing the past through archaeology is intricate and multidisciplinary, involving a series of methodical steps and the use of various scientific techniques.

Survey and Excavation

The first step in archaeological research is often the survey. Archaeologists survey potential sites to identify indications of past human activities. This can include surface finds, geographical features, and satellite imagery to detect anomalies indicative of human constructions or alterations.

Once a site is identified, excavation begins, which is a more invasive procedure. Excavations are conducted in carefully measured and controlled areas known as trenches or pits. Archaeologists meticulously dig through layers of soil and sediment, which are often stratified, reflecting different periods of human occupation. The principle of stratigraphy is fundamental here: layers of soil accumulated on top of one another imply that the deeper layers are older than the layers above them. By excavating layer by layer, archaeologists can piece together chronological sequences and understand the temporal context of finds.

Analysis of Artifacts and Ecofacts

Artifacts (objects made or used by humans) and ecofacts (organic materials that give environmental information) are carefully catalogued and analyzed. Artifacts can include tools, pottery, jewelry, and remains of structures. Ecofacts might include pollen, seeds, bones, and shells. The analysis provides insights into the daily lives, diets, social structures, and economies of past peoples.

For instance, pottery analysis can reveal dietary preferences based on residue analysis or economic interactions through stylistic comparisons between regions. Similarly, tools can tell us about technological advances and the materials available to ancient people.

Dating Techniques

Accurately dating the artifacts and layers is crucial for reconstructing history. Archaeologists use several dating methods:

• Relative dating techniques, such as stratigraphy, help archaeologists understand the sequence of events but do not provide precise calendar dates.
• Absolute dating techniques provide calendar dates. This includes radiocarbon dating, which measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials, and thermoluminescence dating, which measures the light released when crystalline materials are heated.

Interpretation and Reconstruction

Once data is gathered and analyzed, archaeologists must interpret the findings. This involves synthesizing all the collected information to form coherent narratives about the past. Interpretation is often informed by theoretical perspectives, such as processual (focusing on social processes and environmental factors) or post-processual archaeology (emphasizing human agency and subjective experience).

For example, the layout of a settlement can tell us about the social organization and cultural practices of its inhabitants. Large public buildings might suggest centralized control or complex social rituals, while widespread similar housing could indicate a more egalitarian society.

Use of Technology

Modern archaeology increasingly relies on technology. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used to analyze spatial data, revealing patterns that might not be visible through traditional methods. Drones provide aerial photos that help in mapping and monitoring sites. 3D modeling and virtual reality can recreate ancient buildings or simulate how ancient tools were used.

Ethical Considerations

Contemporary archaeology also involves ethical considerations, particularly concerning the treatment of human remains and cultural artifacts. Collaborating with local communities and descendant groups, respecting cultural heritage laws, and ensuring that sensitive information is handled with care are all critical components of modern archaeological practice.

Conclusion

Reconstructing the past through archaeology is a complex process that blends science, interpretation, and technology. By examining material remains left behind by previous civilizations, archaeologists uncover the human story, revealing how our ancestors lived, worked, and interacted with their environment. This process not only enriches our understanding of history but also helps us appreciate the diversity and complexity of human cultures.

Q9: Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Ans: 

The Harappan Civilization, one of the most advanced ancient urban cultures of the Indus Valley, remains enigmatic, especially in aspects of its governance and political structure. Due to the absence of decipherable written records, the precise functions and roles of rulers in Harappan society are largely speculative. However, archaeological evidence allows for educated guesses about the administrative and social roles these leaders might have played.

Centralized Planning and Urban Management

One of the most striking features of Harappan cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa is their sophisticated urban planning. The cities were laid out in a grid pattern with advanced drainage systems, standardized brick sizes, and well-constructed public and residential buildings. This level of organization suggests a centralized authority with a vision for urban development and the ability to mobilize and manage resources effectively. Rulers may have been responsible for planning and executing urban layouts, enforcing construction standards, and maintaining infrastructure, which would have required a bureaucratic system to oversee various aspects of civic administration.

Resource Allocation and Trade

Harappan society showed a high degree of resource management. The civilization was known for its agricultural productivity, craft specialization, and long-distance trade with Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and within the Indian subcontinent. Rulers likely played a crucial role in overseeing these economic activities, regulating the use of resources such as metals, stone, and timber, and managing trade relations with other cultures. This would have involved organizing the production and distribution of goods, standardizing weights and measures (as evidenced by uniform weights found across the region), and possibly managing trade agreements and tariffs.

Religious and Ritual Functions

The Harappan Civilization is noted for its seemingly ritualistic practices, as seen in structures like the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, which may have been used for purification rites. The presence of numerous figurines and seals depicting animal and possibly divine figures suggests that religion played a significant role in Harappan society. Rulers may have functioned as intermediaries between the divine and the mundane, overseeing religious ceremonies and ensuring the observance of ritual practices. They might have also been responsible for the construction and maintenance of religious sites and the production of ritual objects.

Defense and Warfare

Despite the lack of explicit evidence of warfare in Harappan sites, the strategic layout of cities with fortified walls suggests a concern for defense. Rulers might have had the responsibility to protect the cities from external threats and maintain internal order. This could have included overseeing the construction of city walls, organizing a militia or guard, and strategizing defensive tactics.

Social Order and Justice

The uniformity in the size and design of residential units across Harappan cities suggests a society with a degree of social equality or at least a well-managed urban welfare system. Rulers may have played a role in maintaining social order, arbitrating disputes, and enforcing laws or social norms. This could have extended to managing public granaries and ensuring the equitable distribution of food, particularly in times of drought or famine.

Conclusion

While direct evidence regarding the roles of rulers in Harappan society is scarce, the above functions are inferred based on the archaeological findings that demonstrate a high level of social organization and urban management. The rulers of Harappa likely wielded significant authority in areas of urban planning, economic management, religious activities, defense, and social justice. Understanding these roles further depends on the breakthroughs in deciphering Harappan script and more nuanced archaeological interpretations in the future. This would provide a clearer picture of how these rulers contributed to the enduring legacy of the Harappan Civilization.

Map work

Q10: On the given map, use a pencil to circle the sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites where raw materials were found.

Ans: 

(i) Sites of agriculture: Harappa, Banawali, Kalibangan, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira (Gujarat).

(ii) Sites of craft production: Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, Balakot.

(iii) Sites of raw material: Nageshwar, Balakot, Khetri.

Project (Choose one)

Q11: Find out if there are any museums in your town. Visit one of them and write a report on any ten items, describing how old they are, where they were found, and why you think they are on display.
Ans: I have visited “National council Science Museum” which is located in Delhi.  Founded in 1992, the “National Science Center” is one of the science museums in Delhi, India. It is a part of  “National Council of Science Museum” (NCSM), which is an independent body under the “Ministry of Culture” of India. It is close to the gate number 1 of Pragati Maidan in front of the Purana Fort. It is a very good and knowledge place for children as well as adults. You can see models of many science achievements and projects.  

Q12: Collect illustrations of ten things made of stone, metal and clay produced and used at present. Compare these with the pictures of the Harappan civilisation in this chapter, and discuss the similarities and differences that you find.
Ans: Collection of different things - it is to be done by the students themself.

List of things made of stone, metal and clay:

• Stone: Statues, toys, tools, implements, beads, models.
• Metal: Knife, sword, ring, axe, ornaments, coins, toys, machine, idols, models, signboards, locks, keys, scissors.
• Clay: Pots, toys, models.

The people of Harappa used to make idols of stone, metal and clay.
They used to make toys of clay, metal and stone.
Tools and implements were made of stone and metal by the Harappans.
Differences: Stone, metal and clay used to play most important role in the life of Harappans then the people of modern society.