NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History - Kings, Farmers and Town

Answer in 100-150 words

Q1: Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Ans: Historians and archaeologists have not been able to carry out widespread excavations in early historic towns because they are still inhabited. However, in the case of the Harappan Civilization, we were fortunate to conduct extensive excavations. Despite this limitation, many artifacts have been discovered in historic towns, revealing the craftsmanship of those times, including:

• Fine Pottery: From the sites, fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found, known as Northern Black Polished Ware. 
• Diverse Artefacts: There is evidence of various ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, and figurines made from a wide range of materials, including gold, silver, copper, bronze, etc.
• Donor Inscriptions: Donor inscriptions reveal the presence of various professionals and craftsmen in the towns, such as washermen, weavers, scribes, carpenters, goldsmiths, ironsmiths, and others. 
• Guilds of Craftsmen and Artisans: Craftsmen and artisans formed guilds, collectively sourcing raw materials, producing, and marketing their products.
  
  

Q2: Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas.
Ans: Mahajanapadas were states that existed between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Buddhist and Jain texts mention sixteen Mahajanapadas. The important features of the Mahajanapadas include:

• Governance: Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by powerful kings. However, there were some republics where rule was in the hands of the people. In some states, both the king and the subjects collectively controlled the economic resources of the state.
• Capitals and Fortifications: Every Mahajanapada had its own capital, typically surrounded by a fort, which was necessary for protection and safeguarding economic resources.
• Dharmashastra Compilation: Around the 6th century BCE, Brahmins began to compile scriptures called "Dharmashastra," which outlined rules of morality, including those for monarchs.
• Taxation: The main responsibility of the king was the collection of taxes from farmers, traders, and craftsmen. They also accepted donations.
• Warfare: It was considered fair to plunder neighboring countries for riches.
• Military and Officials: Gradually, Mahajanapadas began to maintain full-time armies and officials. Soldiers often came from the ranks of farmers.
  
  

Q3: How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Ans: Ordinary people could not leave behind any historical evidence about their life. Hence, the historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the lives of the common people during the ancient times. The important sources are:

• Remains of houses and pottery give an idea of the life of common men.
• Some inscriptions and scriptures talk about the relation between monarchs and the subject. It talks about taxes and happiness and unhappiness of the common men.
• Changing tools of craftsmen and farmers talk about the lifestyle of the people.
• Historians also depend upon folklores to reconstruct the lives of the people during the ancient times.
  
  

Q4: Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (source 8). Do you notice any similarities and differences? 
Ans: Similarities:

• Both lists include items derived from natural resources like animals, plants, and minerals.
• Both mention agricultural products such as fruits and flowers.

Differences:

• Items given to the Pandyan chief are more luxurious and diverse in nature, including exotic animals and various spices and medicinal plants.
• The village of Danguna list focuses more on practical resources like grass, animal hides, charcoal, and items exempted from taxes, indicating a more utilitarian approach compared to the ceremonial and tribute-based items for the Pandyan chief.

Q5: List some of the problems faced by the epigraphists.
Ans: Some of the important problems they encounter when they try to decipher inscriptions are as follows:

• Many of the inscriptions are not found in proper shape, they are partly damaged, hence deciphering them becomes a problem.
• The inscriptions are written from the point of view of those who have created it. Hence, in order to get an impartial understanding, we need to go beyond the written words, get into its interpretations.
• Many of the inscriptions have descriptions in symbolic words. Hence deciphering them have become difficult.
• Sometimes the inscriptions are engrafted in very light colors. Hence, deciphering them becomes difficult.

Write a short essay (about 500 words) on the following:

 Q6: Discuss the main features of the Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Ans:  Asokan inscriptions mention all the main features of the administration of the Mauryan Empire. Thus, the features of the administration are evident in the inscriptions of the Asokan age. The important features of the same are as follow:

• The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra. Apart from the capital there were four other centres of political power in the empire. They were Taxila, Ujjaini, Tosali and Suvamagiri.
• Committee and subcommittees were formed to run the administration and safety of boundaries. Megasthenes has mentioned that there were one committee and six sub-committees. The six subcommittees and their areas of activities are as follows:
  (i) The first sub committee looked after navy.
  (ii) The second sub committee looked after transport and communications.
  (iii) The third sub committee looked after infantry.
  (iv) The fourth sub committee had the responsibility of horses.
  (v) The fifth had the responsibility of chariots.
  (vi) The sixth had the responsibility of elephants.
• Strong network of roads and communications were established. It is notable that no large empire can be maintained in the absence of the same.
• Asoka made an attempt to keep the empire united by the philosophy of Dhamma. Dhamma are nothing but moral principles that actuated people towards good conducts. Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras were appointed to propagate Dhamma. In fact Romila Thapar has made it the most important element of the Asokan state’s governing principle.

Q7: This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss. 
Ans: The statement of eminent epigraphist D.C. Sirkar has highlighted the importance of inscription as single source of information that touch upon all areas of our life. Following are the main areas we get information about from the inscriptions

• Determination of state’s boundaries: the inscriptions were carved in the territories of the kings and even more important is not often close to the borders. This help us find out boundaries of kingdoms and their expansions thereto.
• Names of Kings: The names of the kings are mentioned in the inscriptions. The names and titles used by Asoka the Great got revealed through inscriptions only.
• Historic events: The important historical events are mentioned in the inscriptions. The best example is how the event of the Kalinga war is mentioned in the inscription and how Asoka takes to Dhamma.
• Information about conduct of Kings: Inscriptions describe the conduct and character of the kings quite well. It is through the inscriptions only that we know Asoka worked for the welfare of the masses.
• Information about administration: Inscriptions gave information about administration. It is through the inscription. We know that Asoka appointed his son as a Viceroy.
• Land settlement and Taxes: inscriptions mention how land were granted or gifted. It also talks about various taxes imposed by the ruler.

There is hardly any area of governance of our life that is not mentioned in the inscriptions. Hence, we are inclined to agree with D.C. Sirkar who says, “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of Indians that is not reflected in the inscriptions.”

Q8: Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Ans:  In the post-Mauryan age, the idea of kingship got associated with divine theory of state. Now, the monarchs began to talk about divine sanction to rule the people. Kushan rulers propagated the idea of the same at the unpresented scale. They ruled from central Asia to western India. We can discuss the kingship based on the dynasties.

• Kushan Kings: Kushan Kings called themselves Devputra and hence, godly status. They built great statues of themselves in temples.
• Gupta Rulers: Second development of kingship is found during Gupta dynasty. It was a period of large-sized states. Such states were dependent on Samantas who sometimes became powerful enough to usurp the power of kings too.
• Literature, coins and inscriptions helped us in creating history of those days. Very often poets would describe the monarch often to praise them but giving insight into the history and kingship too. A good example is of Harisena who praised Samudragupta, the great Gupta ruler.
  
  

Q9: To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Ans: The demand for taxes increased in the post 600 BC. In order to meet the demand of excessive taxes, without taking lesser produce, forced the farmers to increase productivity. This resulted in the use of new tools and practices of agriculture. The important ones are as follows:

• Use of plough: Ploughs became commonplace. They were hardly heard of in the past. The use of ploughs began in the Ganga and Cauvery basins. In places where rain was abundant, the plough was used with iron tip. This increased the paddy production manifold.
• Use of spade: Another tool that changed the system of agriculture is spade. Those farmers who lived in the areas of harsh land used spade.
• Artificial Irrigation: Apart from rainfall, the farmers now began to look at artificial form of irrigation. This prompted farmers to build wells, ponds, and – canals often collectively. This increased the agricultural production.
  The production increased due to new technology and tools. This created a new strata in the society. In the Buddhist literature, there is a description of small and big farmers. They were called Grihpatis. Similar description is given in the Tamil literature too. The position of village head was often hereditary. In such a situation the ownership of land became very important.

Map work

 Q10: Compare Maps 1 and 2, and list the mahajanapadas that might have been included in the Mauryan Empire. Are any Asokan inscriptions found in these areas?
Ans:
Mauryan Empire

Project

Q11: Collect newspapers for one month. Cut and paste all the statements made by government officials about public works. Note what the reports say about the resources required for such projects, how the resources are mobilised and the objective of the project. Who issues these statements, and how and why are they communicated? Compare and contrast these with the evidence from inscriptions discussed in this chapter. What are the similarities and differences that you notice?
Ans: (This question needs to be attempted by the students themselves. Some hints are given below for students.)

• Obverse: On the front side, there is a portrait of a notable figure, such as George Washington or Abraham Lincoln, along with the denomination of the note.
• Reverse: The back side features various symbols and landmarks, like the Great Seal of the United States or images representing American history.
• Common Features: The notes are rectangular in shape and primarily printed on cotton-linen blend paper. They include security features like watermarks, security threads, and color-shifting ink.
• Differences: The images and symbols vary depending on the denomination, but all notes feature the same basic design elements and security features.

Euro (EUR):

• Obverse: The front side of Euro banknotes features windows and gateways with bridges and arches, symbolizing openness and cooperation.
• Reverse: The back side depicts different periods in European architectural history, such as Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque styles.
• Common Features: Euro banknotes are rectangular and made of pure cotton paper. They also include various security features like holograms, raised print, and microprinting.
• Differences: Each denomination has its own color and design theme, but they all follow a similar architectural motif.

Japanese Yen (JPY):

• Obverse: Japanese Yen banknotes typically feature portraits of notable figures from Japanese history, such as Emperor Meiji or Natsume Sōseki.
• Reverse: The back side often showcases scenes from Japanese culture, landscapes, or important historical events.
• Common Features: Yen banknotes are rectangular and made of cotton paper. They include security features like holograms, metallic strips, and latent images.
• Differences: The images and colors vary between denominations, but they all incorporate elements of Japanese culture and history.

Indian Rupee (INR):

• Obverse: Indian Rupee notes usually feature images of Mahatma Gandhi, along with the denomination and the Reserve Bank of India seal.
• Reverse: The back side depicts various Indian landmarks, cultural symbols, or wildlife scenes.
• Common Features: Rupee notes are rectangular and made of cotton paper. They include security features like watermarks, security threads, and intaglio printing.
• Differences: Each denomination has its own color scheme and design elements, reflecting different aspects of Indian culture and heritage.

British Pound Sterling (GBP):

• Obverse: Pound Sterling banknotes often feature portraits of British monarchs, such as Queen Elizabeth II, and historical figures like Winston Churchill.
• Reverse: The back side showcases images of British landmarks, cultural symbols, or historical events.
• Common Features: Pound Sterling banknotes are rectangular and made of polymer. They include security features like transparent windows, holograms, and tactile features.
• Differences: The designs vary between denominations, but they all incorporate elements of British history and culture.

Comparison with Coins from History Chapter:

• Materials: Modern coins are typically made of metals like copper, nickel, or zinc, whereas ancient coins might have been made of silver, gold, or bronze.
• Minting Techniques: Modern coins are often minted using advanced machinery, whereas ancient coins might have been struck by hand.
• Visual Symbols: Both modern and ancient coins feature symbols representing political authority, religious beliefs, or cultural identity.
• Significance: Coins from both eras serve(d) as a medium of exchange, a symbol of authority, and a means of propagating political or cultural messages.