NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History - Kinship, Caste, and Class - 1

Answer in 100-150 words

Q1: Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families. 
Ans: Patriliny is the system through which descent from father to son and grandson is traced.

The principle of patriliny would have been essential for the elite families for the following reasons:
(i) Continuity of Dynasty: 

• As per the Dharmashastras, it was an established belief that the son carried forward the dynasty.
•  That was the main reason that the families wished for sons not for daughters. A couplet of Rigveda also substantiates this view.

(ii) Inheritance: In royal families, the acquisition of throne was included in the inheritance. After the death of a king, his eldest son was supposed to inherit the throne. After the death of the parents, the property was to be equally divided among all the sons. 

• The brother of the king ascended the throne in case the former had no son.
• Relatives also claimed inheritance of the throne.
• In some special cases, women also ascended the throne-like Prabhavati Gupta.

Q2: Discuss whether kings in early states invariably were Kshatriyas.
Ans:  As per the Dharmashastra, only Kshatriyas were supposed to be the kings. But it was also to be noted that many important ruling lineages perhaps had different origins. Mauryas were considered Kshatriyas by many people. 

• Some Brahmanical texts described Mauryas as of low origin. The Shungas and Kanvas who were immediate successors of the Mauryas were Brahmanas. 
• In fact, those sections of the society controlled the political power which enjoyed support and resources. 
• It did not depend on the question of being born as Kshatriya.
• There were other rulers like Shakas who came from Central Asia. But the Brahmanas considered them as mlechchhas, barbarians, and outsiders. 
• Similarly, Gotami-putra Satkami, the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, became a destroyer of the pride of kshatriyas. 
• This we see that the Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas whereas the Brahmanas were of the opinion that the king should be Kshatriyas.
  

Q3: Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba, and Matanga.
Ans: 
Drona: 

• Drona, a Brahmana, was responsible for teaching education and archery to the Kuru Dynasty princes. At that time, low-caste individuals were denied education, so Drona refused to teach Ekalavya. 
• Despite this, Ekalavya mastered archery on his own. 
• However, Drona demanded Ekalavya's right thumb as a teaching fee, which was against religious norms. 
• Drona did this to ensure that no one surpassed Arjuna in archery.

Hidimba: 

• Hidimba, a rakshasi (demoness), was a man-eater. 
• Her brother asked her to capture the Pandavas so he could eat them, but Hidimba fell in love with Bhima instead and married him. They had a son, Ghatotkacha. 
• By doing this, Hidimba ignored the usual norms of rakshasas.

Matanga: 

• Matanga, a Boddhisatta born into a Chandala family, married Dittha Mangalika, the daughter of a merchant. 
• They had a son, Mandavya Kumara, who learned the three Vedas and offered food to sixteen hundred Brahmanas daily. However, he refused to feed his father when he appeared in rags, considering him an outcast. 
• Matanga advised his son not to be proud of his birth and then vanished. 
• Dittha Mangalika sought Matanga’s forgiveness, demonstrating her devotion. Mandavya, however, failed to uphold the values of religion and generosity.

Q4: In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of a society derived from the Purusha Sukta?
Ans: 

• The Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda says that the four Vamas emerged because of the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. The four vamas were Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. These Vamas had different jobs. 
• The Brahmanas had a supreme position in society. They were also considered teachers. Kshatriyas were considered warriors. They also ran the administration. The Vaishyas were the masters of the trade. 
• The Shudras were at the lowest strata. Their duty was to serve the above three vamas. Under this Brahmanical system, birth was the only criteria to judge the status and prestige in the society.
• But the Buddhist theory of a social contract was different. As per the Buddhist concept, there was inequality in society, but this inequality was neither natural nor permanent. They did not favor the idea of birth being the criteria of social status.

Indian Caste System

Q5: The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Jandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:

Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to all the Brahmanas and the chief priest of the house of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully to teacher Drona … I hold the feet of our preceptor Kripa … (and) the chief of the Kurus, the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to the old king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask after the health of his son Duryodhana and his younger brother ... Also greet all the young Kuru warriors who are our brothers, sons and grandsons … Greet above all him, who is to us like father and mother, the wise Vidura (born of a slave woman) ... I bow to the elderly ladies who are known as our mothers. To those who are our wives you say this, “I hope they are well-protected”… Our daughters-inlaw born of good families and mothers of children greet on my behalf. Embrace for me those who are our daughters … The beautiful, fragrant, well-dressed courtesans of ours you should also greet. Greet the slave women and their children, greet the aged, the maimed (and) the helpless …
Try and identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position on the list.
Ans: 

• Not only age, gender, and kinship ties but there were other factors too that were considered to prepare the list.
• The Brahmana, the Purohits, and the Gums have bestowed the highest honors. They all were widely respected.
• Fraternal kins were also given respect who were considered like parents. People who were of equal age or younger were placed at the third rank. In the next order, the young Kuru warriors were respected. 
• Women also received a due place. Wives, mothers, daughters-in-law, and daughters came in this order. Orphans and handicapped had also been taken care of. Yudhisthira also greets them.

Write a short essay (about 500 words) on the following

Q6. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Wintemitz, wrote about the Mahabharata: “Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature…. and contains so many kinds of things….(it) give(s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss. 

Ans. Maurice Winternitz's perspective on the Mahabharata highlights the epic's role as a comprehensive cultural and literary phenomenon, reflecting the depth of Indian society's soul. His observations emphasize how the Mahabharata, beyond a mere story of dynastic strife, offers profound insights into various aspects of life, deeply resonating with the cultural and philosophical ethos of India.

Q7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author. 

Ans. The Mahabharata, one of the greatest epics in the world, is a monumental and intricate work of literature that spans over 100,000 verses, making it one of the longest epics known. The question of its authorship, whether it could be the work of a single individual, invites a fascinating exploration into the text's historical, cultural, and literary contexts.

Historical Composition: 

The Mahabharata was composed over a period of nearly a millennium, from approximately 500 BCE to 400 CE. This extensive timeframe alone suggests the improbability of a single author. The text reflects a succession of historical and cultural shifts, incorporating various traditions and views that evolved through centuries. Each layer added to the Mahabharata introduces new characters, sub-plots, and philosophical dilemmas, indicating contributions from multiple generations of scribes and scholars.

Multiple Recensions and Versions:

 The existence of numerous recensions and regional variations of the Mahabharata further complicates the idea of single authorship. The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, a scholarly project that commenced in 1919, involved collating hundreds of manuscripts from different parts of India. This edition highlighted significant variations in narrative and philosophical content, suggesting contributions from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

Linguistic and Stylistic Diversity: 

The Mahabharata's language style changes a lot throughout the epic. Some parts use simple, direct Sanskrit that’s easy to recite and remember, while other sections use more complex, classical Sanskrit showing advanced writing skills. This variety in style suggests that different parts were written by authors with different levels of expertise and knowledge.

Integration of Diverse Traditions:

 The Mahabharata encapsulates a vast array of cultural and philosophical traditions. It includes Vedic rituals, Brahmanical norms, ethical debates, and philosophical teachings such as those found in the Bhagavad Gita. The epic also integrates local legends and hero tales from across the Indian subcontinent, reflecting a tapestry of regional influences rather than the perspective of a single author.

Philosophical and Ethical Dialogues:

 One of the defining features of the Mahabharata is its engagement with complex philosophical and ethical questions. The text presents a multitude of voices and perspectives, often in dialogue or conflict with each other. The variety of ideas and lack of a single belief show that this is a shared and changing view, not just one person’s idea. 

Narrative Complexity: 

The Mahabharata’s story is very complex, mixing many smaller tales and backgrounds with the main story. Its ability to stay clear and connected shows that it was carefully put together and edited by many people over a long time.

Q8. How important were gender differences in early societies ? Give reasons for your answer. 

Ans. In the Mahabharata and the historical context it represents, gender differences were very important in shaping social, political, and cultural norms. The epic reflects and reinforces these gender norms, giving us a clear view of how early Indian societies viewed gender roles.

Q9. Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed. 

Ans. Exploring historical texts like the Mahabharata reveals that Brahmanical rules about kinship and marriage were not always followed in ancient India. This shows a mix of local customs, cultural diversity, and different religious practices.

Textual Variations in the Mahabharata: The Mahabharata has different versions that show regional changes in the text. For example, Draupadi’s marriage to five Pandava brothers contrasts with the usual Brahmanical practice of monogamy and patrilineal marriage.

Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence: Inscriptions and archaeological finds often show practices that differ from Brahmanical codes. Some inscriptions mention women who owned property or were recognized for their scholarly or religious contributions, suggesting more flexible social roles.

Influence of Other Cultural and Religious Traditions: Buddhism and Jainism offer different views on social organization, often criticizing the strict Brahmanical social order. These traditions focus on individual moral development rather than rigid societal norms based on birth and gender.

Literary Sources Beyond the Mahabharata: Other ancient Indian texts, including romantic and dramatic works, show women in roles that challenge the patriarchal and patrilineal norms of Brahmanical literature. These stories often feature women with significant influence and agency.

Regional Practices and Customs: India’s diverse geography and cultures meant that local practices often differed from central religious rules. For example, matrilineal traditions in Kerala and northeastern India contrast with the patrilineal focus of Brahmanical texts, showing regional differences in kinship and marriage.

Juxtaposition of Normative and Descriptive Texts: While normative texts prescribe ideal behaviors and roles, descriptive narratives reveal varied practices that often do not match these ideals. This shows the complexity of social practices in ancient India, with Brahmanical norms being just one influence in a dynamic cultural and religious landscape. The differences in practices highlight how culture evolves in response to changing social, political, and environmental conditions.

Map work

Q10. Compare the map in this chapter with Map 1 in Chapter 2. List the mahajanapadas and cities located near the Kuru-Panchala lands.

Ans. 

• Mahajanapadas: Kuru, Shurasena, and Matsya
• Cities: Hastinapura, Indraprastha, Mathura, and Virata

Project

Q11. Find out about retellings of the Mahabharata in other languages. Discuss how they handle any two of the episodes of the text described in this chapter, explaining any similarities or differences that you notice.

Ans. (This question need to be answered by the student themselves. We have provided a sample answer for your reference)

Retellings: The Mahabharata has been retold in various languages, each bringing unique perspectives and interpretations. Notable retellings include the Tamil "Periya Puranam" and the Bengali "Krittivasi Ramayan."

Episode 1: The Game of Dice

• Tamil Retelling (Periya Puranam): In this version, the game of dice is portrayed with more emphasis on divine interventions and moral lessons. The focus is on the dharma (duty) and the eventual victory of good over evil.
• Bengali Retelling (Krittivasi Ramayan): This version highlights the emotional and psychological aspects of the characters. The deceit of Shakuni and the humiliation of Draupadi are given more dramatic emphasis.

Similarities: Both retellings maintain the core narrative of the game of dice and its consequences. They highlight the themes of fate, destiny, and the righteousness of the Pandavas.

Differences: The Tamil version tends to be more didactic, focusing on moral and religious lessons, while the Bengali version is more dramatic, focusing on character development and emotional depth.

Episode 2: The Exile of the Pandavas

• Tamil Retelling (Periya Puranam): The exile is depicted as a period of spiritual growth and divine encounters for the Pandavas. There are numerous references to their devotion and the divine support they receive.
• Bengali Retelling (Krittivasi Ramayan): This version portrays the exile as a time of suffering and hardship. The human aspects of the Pandavas' struggle are emphasized, making their eventual return and victory more triumphant.

Similarities: Both versions acknowledge the trials and tribulations faced by the Pandavas during their exile and their unwavering commitment to dharma.

Differences: The Tamil retelling focuses more on the divine aspects and spiritual growth, while the Bengali retelling emphasizes the human emotions and resilience of the Pandavas.

Q12. Imagine that you are an author and rewrite the story of Ekalavya from a perspective of your choice.

Ans. (This question need to be answered by the student themselves. We have provided a sample answer for your reference)

Perspective: A compassionate teacher who values talent over social status.

Title: "Ekalavya: The Unsung Hero"

Rewritten Story:

Ekalavya was a boy of extraordinary talent and determination, born into a tribe of hunters. His heart was set on becoming the finest archer in the land. He approached Dronacharya, the renowned teacher, with a humble request to be his disciple. Drona, bound by societal norms, turned him away due to his low birth.

Undeterred, Ekalavya crafted a clay statue of Drona and practiced diligently before it, perfecting his skills with unmatched dedication. One day, while Drona and his royal disciples were hunting, they encountered a dog whose mouth was filled with arrows, yet it was unharmed. Astonished by this feat, they sought out the archer and found Ekalavya.

Drona, realizing the exceptional skill of Ekalavya, asked him how he had learned such mastery. Ekalavya bowed and said, "From you, my master, through your statue." Drona, conflicted by the societal pressures and his promise to Arjuna to make him the greatest archer, asked Ekalavya for his right thumb as a token of gratitude. Without hesitation, Ekalavya severed his thumb and offered it to Drona.

Though he could no longer shoot arrows with the same precision, Ekalavya's spirit remained unbroken. He continued to practice and adapted his technique. His story spread far and wide, not just as a tale of sacrifice but as a testament to the human spirit's resilience and the pursuit of excellence despite adversity.

In the end, Ekalavya's legacy was not defined by his caste or his sacrifice, but by his unyielding determination and his undying passion for archery. He became an inspiration, proving that true talent and dedication can rise above all barriers.