UGC NET Paper 2 History Mock Test - 1 - UGC NET MCQ

• Statement 1 is incorrect. Kharosthi was an ancient Indian script used in Gandhara (now Pakistan and north-eastern Afghanistan) to write Gandhari Prakrit and Sanskrit. It was used in Central Asia as well. It was also in use in Bactria, the Kushan Empire, Sogdia, and along the Silk Road. There is some evidence it may have survived until the 7th century in Khotan and Niya, both cities in Xinjiang. It was written from right to left. Hence statement 1 is incorrect.
• Statement 2 is incorrect. Brahmi is the modern name for a writing system of ancient South Asia. The Brahmi writing system, or script, appeared as a fully developed universal one in South Asia in the third century BCE. Among the inscriptions of Ashoka c. 3rd-century BCE written in the Brahmi script a few numerals were found, which have come to be called the Brahmi numerals. Brahmi script was written from left to right. Hence statement 2 is incorrect.
• Statement 3 is correct. Ancient Greeks added vowels to a consonantal language and changed their horizontal writing direction from right-to-left to left-to-right. The idea that the dextral majority in ancient Greece developed left-to-right writing solely because writing efficiency was greater is questioned.

J.B. Bury is the author of 'The Idea of Progress'.

Key Points

• J.B.Bury (1861-1927) was an English historian of the positivist tradition.
• He firmly believed in the scientific status of history and exhorted the historians to be accurate, erudite and exact in their search and presentation of facts.
• He maintained that although history may provide material for writing literature or philosophy, it was different from both these because it was a science.
• He wrote many important historical works including the 'History of Greece' and 'A History of the Later Roman Empire'.

• He was also the author of the book 'The Idea of Progress'.

Hence, we can conclude that J.B. Bury is the author of 'The Idea of Progress'.

The correct answer is Option 2, served as a unifying ideal despite its inherent ambiguity.

Key Points

• The passage highlights the divergent interpretations of "Swaraj" among different factions, yet emphasizes its ability to foster temporary unity despite these differences.
• The term "Swaraj" has historical significance in India, particularly in relation to the Indian National Congress, the party that dominated the country's struggle for independence. The term, often translated as self-rule, self-governance, or independence, became a rallying cry for those seeking to end British rule.

• Within the Congress, the ambiguity may have actually served as a unifying ideal, because it allowed various factions within the party to interpret it in ways that aligned with their own goals and ideologies. It allowed the party, which was composed of individuals from diverse regional, religious, caste, and class backgrounds, to rally around a common goal without having to agree on all the specific details.

• In the late colonial period, Congress leaders like Mahatma Gandhi further broadened the term's significance by linking it to a broader socio-economic transformation and moral regeneration of the nation. "Swaraj", to Gandhi, was as much about empowering the poorest of the poor and ensuring dignity and basic rights for all, as it was about political independence.

  Overall, despite its ambiguity, or perhaps because of it, "Swaraj" served as a powerful motivator and unifier for the Indian National Congress during the independence struggle and beyond.

The correct answer is Sir Mohammad Iqbal.

Key Points

• Sir Mohammad Iqbal was the President of the Muslim League in 1930.

Additional Information

• The All-India Muslim League was the first Muslim political party of India.
  • The All-India Muslim League (popularised as the Muslim League) was a political party established in 1906 in British India.
  • Its strong advocacy for the establishment of a separate Muslim-majority nation-state, Pakistan, successfully led to the partition of India in 1947 by the British Empire.
  • The party arose out of a literary movement begun at The Aligarh Muslim University and was formed in Dhaka (now in Bangladesh) many years after the death of Syed Ahmad Khan who was the central figure for the formation of the University.
  • It remained an elitist organization until 1937 when the leadership began mobilising the Muslim masses and the league then became a popular organization.
  • In the 1930s, the idea of a separate nation-state and influential philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal's vision of uniting the four provinces in North-West British India further supported the rationale of the two-nation theory aligning with the same ideas proposed by Syed Ahmad Khan.

The correct answer is Vidyadhar.

Key Points

Vidyadhara (c.1003−1035 CE)

• Vidyadhara was a Chandela king of central India. The Chandela dynasty is famous in Indian history for King Vidyadhar, who repulsed the attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• According to some legends, Vidyadhara killed the Pratihara king of Kannauj (possibly Rajyapala) for fleeing his capital instead of fighting the Ghaznavid invader, Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara’s kingdom and the conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud. By the end of Vidyadhara’s reign, the Ghaznavid invasions had weakened the Chandella kingdom.
• Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, found at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India.
• His love for sculptures is shown in the world heritage site temples of Khajuraho and Kalinjar fort.

Important PointsMahendrapala I, Mihir Bhoja, and Nagbhata belong to the Gurjara-Pratiharas.

• The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River.
• Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin in the Caliphate campaigns in India. Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India.
• He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja.
• Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty reached its peak of prosperity and power.
• By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivaled that of the Gupta Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south.

Option 3 is NOT correct.

• Gandhika has been mentioned as the traders of perfume and they were prosperous. Hence, Option 3 is NOT correct.
• Satavahana followed the Mauryas in Deccan of India.
• Simuka (230-207 BC) was the founder and the first king of Satvahana dynasty. Hence, Option 1 is correct.
• King Hala assumed the title of Kavivatsal. Hence, Option 2 is correct.
• Satavahana dynasty ruled from Pune in Maharastra to Coastal Andhra Pradesh in the second century BC onwards.
• Satavahanas started the practice of granting taxfree villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. Hence, Option 4 is correct.
• This dynasty was built upon the ruins of the Maurya Empire and around 1st century AD, they were the most prominent in the Modern Andhra Pradesh Region.
• King was called Rajan or Raja and he had the right to mint the coins.
• A Senapati was appointed as the provincial governor.

The correct answer is All of the above.

Key Points

• Al-Biruni:
  • ​He is considered the father of Indology.
  • He was a Persian scholar born in Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan.
  • Famous books written by him are Kitab-U-Hind, Tahqiq-I-Hind etc.
  • He was the first Muslim to study India's culture, tradition and religion
  • In his book Tahqiq-I-HInd, he wrote about Indian culture and customs besides wars and battles.
• Abdur Razak:
  • ​He was an Islamic scholar from Afghanistan.
  • He visited the Vijaynagar Empire during the Deva Raya II.

Additional Information

• The Vijayanagar Kingdom was founded by Harihar and Bukka in 1336 AD
• Vijayanagar kingdom was divided into four dynasties.
  

The correct answer is ​Neither 1 nor 2.

Key Points

• Vijayanagara empire :
  • ​​​Fortifications and roads​
    • ​Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the fortifications and mentioned seven lines of forts.
    • These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
    • What was most significant about this fortification is that it enclosed agricultural tracts. Abdur Razzaq noted that “ between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses”.
      • Why do you think agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area?
        • Often, the objective of medieval sieges was to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could last for several months and sometimes even years.
        • Normally rulers tried to be prepared for such situations by building large granaries within fortified areas.
        • The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself. Hence, Statement a is correct.
    • The fort was entered through well-guarded gates, which linked the city to the major roads.
    • Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often defined the structures to which they regulated access.
    • The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement as well as the dome over the gate is regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans. Hence, Statement b is correct.
    • Art historians refer to this style as Indo-Islamic, as it grew continually through interaction with local building practices in different regions.

The correct answer is a-1, b-3, c-4, d-2

Key Points

• Mulla Daud wrote Tarikh-i-alfi (History of the Millenium).
• Tarilh-i-alfi was commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar.
• Muntmad Khan, a military officer of Jhangir wrote Iqbal Nama.
• Muntakhabul-lulab was written by Hahim Khafi Khan.
  • It has description of all Mughal emperors from Babur to Later Mughal Muhammad Shah.
• Author of Nushka-i-dilkusha was Bhimsena.

The answer is (b), (c), and (d) only.

Key Points

(b) Strong Center in Federal System: The Indian Constitution adopts a federal system with a strong central government. While states have some autonomy, the central government holds significant power, especially in times of emergencies or national security concerns. This was seen as necessary to maintain national unity and address issues like defense or economic planning effectively.

(c) Opposition to Ambedkar's Ideas: Though the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, Ambedkar's ideas faced opposition from various sections of the Constituent Assembly. This included debates on the nature of the Indian state, the role of religion, and the extent of social and economic rights.

(d) Justiciable Fundamental Rights: The Constitution enshrines Fundamental Rights as justiciable rights, meaning individuals can approach the courts to enforce these rights if they are violated. This was a crucial aspect of protecting individual liberties and ensuring a check on the power of the state.

Additional Information

• Socialist Economy: While Ambedkar advocated for social justice and economic equality, the Constitution did not adopt a specific economic model like socialism. It left the framework for economic policy flexible to be determined by future governments.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a scholar and activist, was a champion for equality in India.
• Born into an "untouchable" caste, he faced discrimination throughout his life.
• Despite this, he achieved great academic success and fought against the caste system.
• As the chairman of the drafting committee, Ambedkar played a pivotal role in shaping India's Constitution, enshrining fundamental rights and safeguards for minorities.
• He is remembered as a fighter for social justice and the "Father of the Indian Constitution."

The correct answer is Abhinav Gupt.

Key Points

• Vedanta
  • The Vedanta or Uttara Mimamsa is the school that concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas (instructions for ritual and sacrifice).
  • The school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries:
  • Advaita (Adi Shankara)
    • It states that both the individual self (Atman) and Brahman are the same, and knowing this difference causes liberation.
  • Visishtadvaita (Ramanuja)
    • It believes that all diversity is subsumed to a unified whole.
  • Dvaita (Madhvacharya)
    • It considers Brahman and Atman as two different entities and Bhakti as the route to eternal salvation.
  • Dvaitadvaita (Nimbarka)
    • It states that the Brahman is the highest reality, the controller of all.
  • Shuddhadvaita (Vallabhacharya)
    • It states that both God and the individual self are the same, and not different.
  • Achintya Bheda Abheda (Chaitanya Mahaprabhu)
    • It emphasizes that the individual self (Jīvatman) is both different and not different from Brahman.

Additional Information

• Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy
  • Orthodox (astika) schools, originally called Sanatana dharma, are collectively referred to as Hinduism in modern times.
  • The ancient Vedas are their source and scriptural authority.
  • Hinduism consists of six systems of philosophy & theology.
    • Samkhya (Kapila): Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems, and it postulates that everything, in reality, stems from Purusha (self, soul, or mind) and Prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy).
    • Yoga (Patanjali): Yoga literally means the union of two principal entities.
      • Yogic techniques control body, mind & sense organs, thus considered as a means of achieving freedom or mukti.
    • Nyaya (Gautama Muni): Nyaya Philosophy states that nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with reason and experience (scientific approach).
      • Nyaya is considered a technique of logical thinking.
    • Vaisheshika (Kanada): The basis of the school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms.
    • Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini): This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika systems and emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge.
      • According to Purva Mimamsa, Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge.
• Abhinav Gupt:
  • Abhinavagupta was a philosopher, mystic, and aesthetician from Kashmir.
  • He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logician a polymathic personality who exercised strong influences on Indian culture.
  • One of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabharati commentary of Naṭyasastra of Bharata Muni.

The correct answer is 1 only.

Key Points

• Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of Chandragupta II (375-415 C.E.). Hence, Statement 1 is incorrect.
• Prabhavatigupta was the chief queen of the Vakataka king Rudrasena II. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
• She took over as queen after the sudden death of her husband. Hence, Statement 3 is correct.
  • She ruled for about 10 years until her son Pravarasena II succeeded.
• She was a Vaishnavite and played a central role in the propagation of Vaishnava practices in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.
• She had donated land which is a rare example of donation by any woman.

Additional Information

• Nagardhan excavations provided an oval-shaped sealing belonging to the period when Prabhavatigupta was the queen of the Vakataka dynasty.
  • It bears her name in the Brahmi script.
  • A copper plate issued by Queen Prabhavatigupta has also been found.
  • It starts with a genealogy of the Guptas, mentioning the Queen’s grandfather Samudragupta and her father Chandragupta II.

Muhammad bin Tughluq was the Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351.

Important Points

Muhammad Tughluq:

• The Sultanate was attacked in the early years of Muhammad Tughluq’s reign.
  • The Mongol army was defeated.
  • Muhammad Tughluq was confident about the strength of his army and his resources to plan an attack on Transoxiana.
  • He, therefore, raised a large standing army.
• Rather than constructing a new garrison town, the oldest of the four cities of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) was emptied of its residents and the soldiers garrisoned there.
  • The residents of the old city were sent to the new capital of Daulatabad in the south.
• Produce from the same area was collected as tax to feed the army.
  • But to meet the need of the large feed number of soldiers the Sultan levied additional taxes.
  • This coincided with famine in the area.
• Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers cash paid salaries.
  • But instead of controlling prices, he used a “token” currency, somewhat like present-day paper currency, but made out of cheap metals, not gold and silver.
  • People in the fourteenth century did not trust these coins.
  • They were very smart: they saved their gold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to the state with this token currency.
  • This cheap currency could also be counterfeited easily.
• Muhammad Tughluq’s administrative measures were a failure.
  • His campaign into Kashmir was a disaster.
  • He then gave up his plans to invade Transoxiana and disbanded his large army.
  • Meanwhile, his administrative measures created complications.
  • The shifting of people to Daulatabad was resented.
  • The raising of taxes and famine in the Ganga-Yamuna belt led to widespread rebellion.
  • And finally, the “token” currency had to be recalled.

Thus, we can conclude that statements A, C and D are correct.

• The provisions of the Indian Factories Act,1891 is as follows:

1. The age of children who can work in the factories is increased from 9 years to 14 years.
2. Reduced the working hour per day to 7 hours. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
3. Maximum working hours for a day were 11 hours.
4. Provide weekly holidays for all.

• Moderate leaders didn't support Factories Act because they believed that the labor legislation would affect the competitive edge enjoyed by Indian own industries. Also, they didn't want to divide the movement into class-based movements.
• Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
• Accordingly, option B is correct.

Administration in Delhi Sultanate:

• Finance: Diwan-i-Wizrat
• Military: Diwas-i-Ariz
• Judicial: Diwan-i-Qaza
• Foreign Affairs: Diwan-i-Rasalat. Hence, option A is correct.
• Cooperation: Diwan-i-Insha

• Ilbert Bill was a controversial measure proposed in 1883 that sought to allow senior Indian judges to try European offenders.
• Earlier only European judges could try European offenders.
• The bill was introduced by the then viceroy, Lord Ripon.
• The bill had to face intense criticism from the Europeans and Britishers as they looked at as a humiliation as it placed Indian judges at par with European Judges.
• The bill was named after the framer of the bill, Courtenay Ilbert, who was appointed as legal adviser to the Council of India.
• It did not put back the Vernacular press on a footing of equality with the English press. as the bill was withdrawn due to opposition in Britain and from British settles in India and was reintroduced in the much-diluted state.
• Hence, A) is true but R) is false.

Additional Information ​

• Lord Ripon is known as the Father of local self-Government in India
• His efforts granted more powers and autonomy to rural and urban bodies at the local level.
• Other Important reforms by Lord Ripon-​

The correct answer is (a), (b), (e), (d) are false & (c) (f) are true.

Key Points

• Harishena composed a prashasti in praise of Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. False
• The rulers of Aryavarta brought tribute for Samudragupta. False
• There were twelve rulers in Dakshinapatha. True
• Taxila and Madurai were important centres under the control of the Gupta rulers. False
• Aihole was the capital of the Pallavas. False
• Local assemblies functioned for several centuries in south India. True

Key Points

• Statement 1 is incorrect. The Greeks in effect maintained a political presence at the doorstep, and sometimes within India, down to the 1st century CE with the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdoms, with many noticeable influences on the arts of the Maurya Empire (c.321–185 BCE) especially. Hence statement 1 is incorrect.
• Statement 2 is correct. Excavations in the ancient palace of Pataliputra have brought to light Hellenistic sculptural works, and Hellenistic influence appears in the Pillars of Ashoka at about the same period. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• Statement 3 is correct. This art was not purely Greek. It was the outcome of the Greek contact with non-Greek conquered people after Alexander’s death. Gandhara art was its best example in India. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

Additional Information

• Hellenistic influence on Indian art and architecture reflects the artistic and architectural influence of the Greeks on Indian art following the conquests of Alexander the Great, from the end of the 4^th century BCE to the first centuries of the common era.
• During the Maurya period (c. 321–185 BCE), and especially during the time of Emperor Ashoka (c.268–232 BCE), Hellenistic influence seems to have played a role in the establishment of Indian monumental stone architecture.

• The Pala Empire (8th to 12th centuries) in Bengal and the Bhaumakara dynasty (8th to 10th centuries) in Odisha, although distinct in their geographical regions and historical timelines, shared a significant cultural contribution to the Indian subcontinent through their patronage of Buddhism.
• Palas of Bengal: The Pala dynasty was a major Buddhist royal house that ruled over the Bengal region, which is today's Bangladesh and West Bengal in India.
• The Palas were known for their profound devotion to Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
• They established several significant Buddhist monasteries and centers of learning, the most famous among them being the Vikramashila and the revived Nalanda University.
• These institutions attracted students and scholars from different parts of Asia, serving as important hubs for the spread of Buddhist thought and practices. The Palas also sponsored the creation of numerous Buddhist texts and art, which had a lasting impact on the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
• Bhaumakaras of Odisha: The Bhaumakara dynasty, ruling a portion of what is now Odisha, similarly showed a strong inclination towards Buddhism, especially during its early phase.
• Even though the religious landscape of Odisha is diverse, including significant influences of Shaivism, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism, early Bhaumakara rulers contributed to the flourish of Buddhism.
• They are known to have built Buddhist temples and supported the monastic communities. The influence reflecting their patronage can be seen in the Buddhist art and architecture remnants found in the region, illustrating the spread and sustenance of Buddhism in that part of India during their reign.
• Thus, both the Palas and the Bhaumakaras contributed significantly to the patronage of Buddhism, playing a crucial role in its proliferation and the cultural enrichment of the regions under their control.
• Their support fostered a vibrant environment for Buddhist education, art, and architecture, leaving a lasting legacy that continued to influence subsequent generations.

After the decline of the Pala dynasty, which was known for its Buddhist patronage, it was the Sena dynasty that reinstated Hinduism as the prominent religion in Bengal and made significant contributions to art and architecture

Key Points

• The dynasty credited with re-establishing Hinduism in Bengal after the decline of the Pala Empire is:

  Senas

• The Sena dynasty played a pivotal role in the resurgence of Hinduism in the Bengal region following the period of Pala rule, which was strongly associated with Buddhism. The Palas, who were great patrons of Buddhism, had established a significant Buddhist cultural and educational presence in Bengal.

• However, with the decline of the Pala Empire, the Sena dynasty emerged as a powerful force, and under their reign, Hinduism saw a significant revival.

• The Senas, originally from Karnataka in South India, established their kingdom in Bengal in the late 11th century.

• They were staunch followers of Hinduism and made concerted efforts to promote and patronize Hindu religious practices, rituals, and the construction of Hindu temples.

• This period under the Senas marked a significant transformation in the religious landscape of Bengal, transitioning it from a predominantly Buddhist culture to one where Hinduism regained prominence.

• The Varmans of Kamarupa are remembered for their Expansion through military conquests
• The Varman dynasty, which ruled the Kamarupa kingdom located in the region corresponding to present-day Assam and surrounding areas, is primarily known for its expansion through military conquests and its strong rulers who extended the kingdom's boundaries.
• This dynasty, which flourished between the 4th and 7th centuries, is remembered for stabilizing and consolidating the kingdom, thereby laying the foundation for the future growth and prosperity of the region.
• The Varmans were significant in the early historical context of Assam, not for the patronage of Christianity, the invention of the Bengali script, or the establishment of Islamic universities, but for their contributions to the territorial expansion and consolidation of their kingdom.
  Additional Information
• ​Territorial Expansion and Consolidation:

  The Varman kings were adept at military strategy, which allowed them to extend their domain significantly. Through a series of conquests and the assertion of power over neighboring territories, they managed to enlarge their kingdom. This not only increased their realm but also their influence over a larger geographic region, contributing to the political unification and stability of the area under their control.

• Establishment of a Strong Kingdom:
  The military conquests under the Varman dynasty were instrumental in establishing Kamarupa as a formidable kingdom in Northeast India. Their successful campaigns against various tribes and neighboring kingdoms laid the groundwork for a stable and centralized administrative system, paving the way for the prosperity and cultural development of the region.

• Defense against External Aggression:
  The Varmans also played a crucial role in defending their kingdom against external aggressions. Their military prowess was not just about expansion but also about protecting their territory from invasion and influence by neighboring powers. This defense capability helped maintain the sovereignty and cultural identity of Kamarupa during their rule.

• Legacy:
  The legacy of the Varman dynasty in military expansion contributed significantly to the socio-political scenario of ancient Northeast India. Their rule is marked by not just territorial gains but also the establishment of a structured governance system that influenced subsequent periods.

• The Varman dynasty's focus was on the expansion through military conquests and the subsequent stabilization of their rule, which laid the foundations for the growth of the Kamarupa kingdom. Their contributions are a significant part of the region's history, highlighting their importance in the early political formations and state-building processes in ancient India.

On 30 September, Gandhi founded All India Anti Untouchability League, to remove untouchability in the society, which later renamed as Harijan Sevak Sangh ("Servants of Untouchables Society"). At the time industrialist Ghanshyam Das Birla was its founding president with Amritlal Takkar as its Secretary.

Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana in the Fourth Buddhist Council.

All given statements are correct. Jain philosophy rejected the existence of created god. They denied the authority of vedas. They accepted the doctrine of Karma and rebirth. They separate body from the soul.

A superior court called the Sadar Nizamat Adalat was, established at Calcutta which exercised control over Fouzdari Adalats. It was presided by an Indian judge known as the Daroga-i-Adalat who was to be assisted by the Chief Kazi, Chief Mufti and three Moulvies. These persons were appointed by the Nawab on the advice of the Governor.

The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted land in lieu of their services. These lands were called “Amaram”. Soldiers were usually paid in cash.

Bharhut is a village located in the Satna district of Madhya Pradesh, central India. It is known for its famous relics from a Buddhist stupa.

The Bharhut stupa may have been first built by the Maurya king Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE but many works of art were apparently added during the Sunga period. An epigraph on the gateway of the stupa mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas by Vatsiputra Dhanabhuti".

Its railing contains numerous birth stories of Buddha’s previous lives or Jataka stories.

In conformity with the early aniconic phase of Buddhist art, Buddha is only represented through symbols, such as the Dharma wheel, the Bodhi tree, an empty seat, footprints or the triratna symbol.

Various school of art developed in India and received patronage from art-loving kings, especially Kushanas. Gandhara style of Buddhist art developed from a merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian artistic influences. Grey sandstone was used; the images were more expressive as body details were finely carved. They were further beautified with wavy hair. Mathura Art was indigenously developed and later cross-fertilized with Gandhara art. Mostly centred in and around Mathura, it used red sandstone with mud, stucco, etc. The Andhra sculpture is generally known as Amravati schools. All the railings of the Amravati stupa are made out of marble, while the dome itself is covered with slabs of the same material. Unfortunately, the entire stupa is in ruins.

Harshavardhana was converted into Mahayana Buddhism by the Chinese Buddhist traveler Huan tsang. He took the title Siladitya. He also conducted the Buddhist conferences called Sangeethis at Prayag. This was done to promote Mahayana Buddhism. Harshavardhana was defeated by Pulakesin II in the battle of Narmada. Pulakesin II then took the title of Parameshwara.

The Wardha Resolution is also known as “Quit India Resolution”. This resolution was ratified in the All India Congress Committee at Bombay on August 7, 1942. Here a nonviolent mass struggle under the leadership of Gandhi was sanctioned in the “August Kranti Maidan”. On the next day, Gandhi, Nehru and many other leaders of the Indian National Congress were arrested by the British Government and Congress party was banned. The movement was not supported by Muslim League.