UGC NET Paper 2 Sociology Mock Test - 3 - UGC NET MCQ

Marriage is an important and universal social institution of society. 

Because it consists of some functions like, people have learned to live in the family cannot live without it, as it as it is conducive to sex discipline and social harmony, 

Secondly, it aims at procreation and maintenance of children, thirdly, it is a permanent bond between the husband and his wife.

Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury (5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679), in some older texts Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, was an English philosopher, best know n today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of the Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.

Broadly defined, social relationships refer to the interactions that exist between people who have recurring interactions that are perceived by the participants as having personal meaning.

• Actions are the root cause of social relations and they help in developing the social structure.
• This definition includes relationships between family members, friends, neighbors, coworkers, and other associates, but does not include social contacts and interpersonal interactions that are fleeting, incidental, or of limited importance (e.g., with service providers or retail employees. Time-limited conversation).
• Scientists interested in behavioral medicine often emphasize the informal social relationships that are important in a person's life or a person's social interactions, rather than formal relationships, such as relationships with physicians, lawyers, or clergy.
• The bonding phenomenon of interest to scientists includes both the specific interactions that individuals experience with their social contacts and with members of the global community.
• Social structure is sometimes simply defined as formalized social relationships, such as regular and repetitive aspects of interaction between members of a given social unit.

D.Miller divided the groups into horizontal and vertical.Important Points 

• A vertical group consists of members from all walks of life.
• A horizontal group consists mainly of members from one social class.

Additional Information 

• C.H. Cooley is best known for his concept of the looking-glass self, which is the concept that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.
• F. Tonnies was a significant contributor to sociological theory and field studies, best known for distinguishing between two types of social groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft.
• G. Simmel's worked on the metropolis and also a precursor of urban sociology, symbolic interactionism, and social network analysis.

Social stratification refers to society’s categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, gender, occupation, and social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit. 

Important Points 

• Social stratification is a society-wide system that makes inequalities apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists are interested in larger social patterns.
• Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like. No individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for social inequalities. The structure of a society affects a person’s social standing.
• Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. 
• Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power..
• In modern Western societies, social stratification is typically defined in terms of three social classes: (i) the upper class, (ii) the middle class, and (iii) the lower class; in turn, each class can be subdivided into, e.g. the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum. Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship, clan, tribe, or caste, or all four.
• Factors that define stratification vary in different societies. In most societies, stratification is an economic system, based on wealth, the net value of money and assets a person has, and income, a person’s wages, or investment dividends.

Thus with the help of above information we can conclude that the essence of social stratification is in Social Inequality. 

A progressive attitude emerged in urban system leaving the feudal system behind.

Key Points

• The transition from the feudal system to urbanization marked a significant shift in societal structure and attitudes.
• As cities grew and developed during the Renaissance and later periods, they became centers of commerce, trade, and intellectual exchange.
• This led to the emergence of a more progressive and modern mindset that challenged the traditional feudal order.
• In urban areas, there was greater social mobility, as individuals had more opportunities to pursue new occupations and engage in trade.
• This allowed for the accumulation of wealth and social advancement based on merit rather than hereditary status, which was a key characteristic of the feudal system.
• Urbanization also fostered the exchange of ideas and the spread of knowledge through universities, printing presses, and cultural centers.
• This intellectual and cultural transformation contributed to the development of new philosophies, scientific discoveries, and artistic movements.
• Additionally, the urban environment often brought people from diverse backgrounds into contact with one another, promoting tolerance and a more cosmopolitan outlook.
• This contrasted with the rigid social hierarchy of the feudal system, which was largely based on birthright and limited interactions between different social classes.

• Overall, the growth of cities and the urban system played a crucial role in the transition from feudalism to more progressive attitudes, fostering economic, intellectual, and social advancements.

Thus, the correct answer is progressive attitude.

The correct answer is : (1) - (e), (2) - (c), (3) - (d), (4) - (b), (5) - (a).

The correct matches are:

Additional Information Max Weber :

• Max Weber, a German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist, introduced the concept of "social action" to sociology.The action is 'social' insofar as its subjective meaning takes into account the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course.
• Weber identifies four types of social action:

1. Rational Action
2. Value-Rational Action
3. Affective (Emotional) Action
4. Traditional Action

Karl Marx:

• Karl Marx, the influential philosopher, economist, and sociologist, introduced the concept of "primitive accumulation" (also known as "original accumulation") in his seminal work, "Capital, Volume I".
• In Marx's theory, primitive accumulation refers to the process of amassing the initial capital that is later used in capitalist production. It involves the historical process that divorces the producer from the means of production, thereby forming the fundamental condition for wage labor and capitalism.

Émile Durkheim;

• Émile Durkheim, a founding figure of sociology, introduced the concept of "social facts" as a fundamental aspect of his sociological method.

• Put simply, social facts are societal norms, values, and structures that exist independently of individuals but exert a significant influence over each person's actions, behaviors, and beliefs. They are collective phenomena that define social life and differentiate it from individual, biological, and psychological phenomena.

• Social facts,as per Durkheim, have three key characteristics: Externality, Constraint and Independence.

Claude Lévi-Strauss;

• Claude Lévi-Strauss, a distinguished anthropologist, introduced the concept of "binary oppositions" as a core element of his structuralist approach to cultural analysis. Binary opposition refers to pairs of theoretical opposites or contrasts, such as high/low, inside/outside, male/female, etc.
• Lévi-Strauss particularly applied this concept of binary opposition in his analysis of myths across different cultures. His work in "Structural Anthropology" often revolved around identifying these pairs of contrasts and seeing how they function in different cultures’ myths and narratives.

Pierre Bourdieu;

• Pierre Bourdieu, a renowned French sociologist and philosopher, contributed significantly to sociology with his concept of "habitus." Habitus refers to the deeply ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that individuals develop over time due to the social conditions they experience.
• Three key characteristics of habitus as defined by Bourdieu are:

1. Durability
2. Transposability
3. Unconscious Nature

The correct answer is R. K. Merton. Key Points

• Robert K. Merton, an American sociologist, made significant contributions to sociology, and he is often associated with functionalism.
• Merton sought to refine and expand structural-functionalism, a theoretical perspective that focuses on how social structures and institutions contribute to the stability and functioning of a society.
• One of Merton's key concerns was addressing the perceived limitations of structural-functionalism in explaining social change. He introduced the concept of "functionalism with a twist" or "structural-functionalism with a difference."
• Merton introduced the distinction between manifest functions (explicit, intended functions) and latent functions (implicit, unintended functions) of social institutions. This conceptualization allowed for a more nuanced understanding of how social structures could have both intended and unintended consequences, contributing to a society's dynamics and changes.

Additional Information

• Claude Lévi-Strauss, a French anthropologist and ethnologist, is a key figure associated with structuralism. He applied structuralist principles to the study of cultural phenomena, emphasizing the underlying structures that shape human thought and behavior. Lévi-Strauss believed that underlying universal structures could be identified beneath the diversity of cultural practices.
• Bronisław Malinowski, a Polish-British anthropologist, is often considered one of the founders of functionalist anthropology. He is known for his ethnographic work in the Trobriand Islands and for developing the concept of "functionalism" in anthropological research. Malinowski emphasized the functional significance of cultural practices and institutions, arguing that they serve specific purposes in meeting the basic needs of individuals and societies.
• Talcott Parsons, an American sociologist, played a key role in the development of structural-functionalism. He focused on understanding how social systems maintain stability and equilibrium. Parsons believed that societies are made up of interconnected institutions and that each institution serves specific functions that contribute to the overall stability of the social system.

Thus, R. K. Merton sought to guard structural-functionalism against its alleged failure to explain social change.

The correct answer is a set of hidden rules that make social relations as they are. Key Points

• Claude Lévi-Strauss, a French anthropologist, is best known for his work in structural anthropology. His perspective on social structure is deeply rooted in structuralism, which seeks to identify the underlying, universal patterns and structures that shape human societies.
• Lévi-Strauss's understanding of social structure involves the idea that there are hidden rules or deep structures that give form to social relations.
• According to Lévi-Strauss, social structures are not immediately visible or evident in the surface-level behaviors of individuals or groups. Instead, he sought to uncover the underlying patterns of thought and organization that shape human societies.
• Lévi-Strauss often used the concept of "binary oppositions" to analyze cultural structures. This involves identifying pairs of opposite terms that are fundamental to the organization of meaning in a society.
• Lévi-Strauss argued that these structural patterns are often unconscious to the members of a society.

Additional Information

• Cognitive Anthropology: Cognitive anthropology explores how cultural patterns and symbols are shaped by cognitive processes. Scholars investigate how individuals perceive, categorize, and make sense of the world, drawing on Lévi-Strauss's interest in uncovering the cognitive structures that underlie cultural expressions.
• Symbolic Anthropology: Building on Lévi-Strauss's focus on symbols and meaning, symbolic anthropology, as developed by Victor Turner and others, examines the role of symbols in shaping social life and cultural practices. This approach often explores rituals, rites of passage, and symbolic expressions within different societies.
• Semiotics: Semiotics, the study of signs and symbols, shares common ground with Lévi-Strauss's structuralism. Scholars in semiotics, such as Ferdinand de Saussure, Roland Barthes, and Umberto Eco, explore how meaning is constructed through signs and symbols, acknowledging the influence of deep structures on cultural expressions.

Thus, For C. Levi-Strauss "social structure" is a set of hidden rules that make social relations as they are.

The correct answer is the Christian Marriage Act. Key Points

• In India, Christian marriages are governed by the Indian Christian Marriage Act, of 1872.
• The Indian Christian Marriage Act is a legal framework that provides for the solemnization and registration of marriages among Christians in India.
• It applies to Indian Christians, and the term "Christian" in this context encompasses various denominations such as Roman Catholic, Protestant, Syrian Christian, and others.
• Christian marriages under this act are usually solemnized by a minister of religion who is recognized by the act.
• The act allows for the ceremony to take place in a church or another place of worship.
• The Indian Christian Marriage Act is specific to Christians and does not apply to marriages within other religious communities.

Additional Information

• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Governs Hindu marriages and provides for the conditions of a valid Hindu marriage, registration, restitution of conjugal rights, judicial separation, and divorce.
• Special Marriage Act, 1954: Applies to all citizens of India irrespective of religion. It allows for the solemnization of marriages between parties belonging to different religions or no religion and provides for the registration of such marriages.
• Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936: Governs marriages within the Parsi community and includes provisions related to solemnization, annulment, and dissolution of marriages.
• Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937: Applies to Muslims and governs matters such as marriage, divorce, maintenance, and inheritance based on Islamic principles.

Thus, Christians in India are governed by the Christian Marriage Act.

The correct answer is Exogamy.

Key PointsFeatures of Caste System in India:

• Purity and Pollution:
• The caste system in India is deeply rooted in the concepts of purity and pollution.
• Individuals are categorized into different castes based on their birth, and each caste is associated with certain occupations and social roles.
• Interactions between different caste groups are often governed by strict rules to prevent the contamination of purity associated with higher castes by the pollution attributed to lower castes.
• Endogamy:
• Endogamy is a key feature of the caste system, wherein individuals are expected to marry within their own caste or sub-caste.
• This practice is enforced to preserve the purity of caste identities and maintain social boundaries.
• Endogamy reinforces the hierarchical structure of the caste system by ensuring that individuals remain within their prescribed social roles and do not challenge the existing power structures.
• Ritual Hierarchy:
• The caste system is characterized by a rigid ritual hierarchy, wherein each caste is assigned a specific status and role in society.
• This hierarchy is based on notions of purity and pollution, with higher castes enjoying greater privileges and authority than lower castes.
• Rituals and ceremonies often reflect and reinforce this hierarchical order, with members of higher castes typically occupying more prestigious roles.
• Exogamy:
• Exogamy, or the practice of marrying outside of one's own social group, is not typically associated with the caste system in India.
• The caste system emphasizes strict endogamy, wherein individuals are expected to marry within their own caste or sub-caste to preserve the purity of caste identities and maintain social boundaries.
• Exogamy would blur caste distinctions and potentially undermine the hierarchical structure of the caste system, making it a rare occurrence within caste-based societies.

​ Therefore, the correct answer is Exogamy.

The correct answer is W.G. Summer.

Key PointsW.G. Sumner, a sociologist, introduced the concept of 'In-group' and 'out-group' to describe social dynamics.

Key points about his classification:

• W.G. Sumner introduced these terms in his influential work, highlighting how societies differentiate between members within their own group (In-group) and those outside (Out-group).
• In-group: Represents a group to which an individual feels a sense of belonging and identity. Members often have loyalty and common interests, leading to positive feelings among them.
• Out-group: Refers to any group an individual does not belong to or identify with. There's often a sense of competition or conflict between an in-group and out-groups, leading to negative perceptions.
• Social Identity: Sumner's concepts are foundational in understanding social identity and group dynamics, illustrating how group affiliations can influence perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors towards others.
• Us vs. Them Mentality: His work explains the origin of an "us versus them" mentality, which can manifest in prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup conflict.
• Sociological Insight: Sumner’s classification has been instrumental in various sociological and psychological studies, contributing to our understanding of group behavior, social cohesion, and division.
• W.G. Sumner's analysis of in-groups and out-groups remains relevant in exploring contemporary issues of social identity, cohesion, and division.

Additional Information

• An Ingroup is a group to which a person identifies as being a member.
• An Outgroup is a social group with which an individual does not identify.
• A primary group is small, consisting of emotional face-to-face relationships.
  • a secondary group is larger and impersonal.
• A primary group is small and impersonal; a secondary group is large and consists of face-to-face relationships.
• Different types of social group :
  • Primary Group
  • Secondary Group
  • In-group
  • Out-group
  • Formal Group
  • Informal Group
  • Involuntary Group
  • Voluntary Group

The correct option is Bronislaw Malinowski.

Key Points

• Culture is a common understanding, which is learned and developed through social interaction with others in society.
• A common understanding within a group demarcates it from others and gives it an identity.
• But cultures are never finished products. They are always changing and evolving.
• Elements are constantly being added, deleted, expanded, shrunk, and rearranged.
• This makes cultures dynamic as functioning units.
• The founder of the “functional school” of anthropology, Bronislaw Malinowski of Poland (1884-1942) wrote: “Culture comprises inherited artifacts, goods, technical process, ideas, habits and values”.

Additional Information

• The sociologist looks at culture not as something that distinguishes individuals, but as a way of life in which all members of society participate. Every social organization develops a culture of its own.
• One early anthropological definition of culture comes from the British scholar Edward Tylor: “Culture or civilization taken in its wide ethnographic sense is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
• Clifford Geertz suggested that we look at human actions in the same way as we look at words in a book, and see them as conveying a message. “… Man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun. I take culture to be those webs…”.The search is not for a causal explanation, but for an interpretative one, that is in search of meaning.
• The multiple definitions of culture in anthropological studies led Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn (anthropologists from the United States) to publish a comprehensive survey entitled Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions in 1952. A sample of the various definitions is presented below.

The correct answer is Gender is a cultural construction that puts men and women in a hierarchical order. Key Points

• Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, identities, and expectations associated with being male or female within a given society.
• Unlike biological sex, which is based on physical attributes, gender is shaped by cultural norms, values, and practices.
• Within many societies, gender is organized hierarchically, with men typically occupying positions of power, privilege, and authority over women.
• This hierarchical arrangement is often referred to as patriarchy.
• Gender-based inequalities intersect with other forms of oppression, such as race, class, sexuality, and ability.

Additional Information

• Feminism: Feminism is a social and political movement aimed at achieving gender equality and challenging patriarchal systems of power and oppression.
• Gender Socialization: Gender socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize societal norms, values, and expectations associated with their gender identity.
• Masculinity Studies: Masculinity studies explore the social construction of masculinity and how masculinities are shaped by cultural norms, expectations, and power dynamics.

Thus, Gender is a cultural construction that puts men and women in a hierarchical order is correct.

The correct answer is 53.

Important Points

• UAs/Towns which have a population of one million (10 Lakh) or above each are known as Million Plus UAs/Cities. Out of 468 UAs/Towns belonging to the Class I category, 53UAs/Towns are MillionPlus UAs/Cities in the country. 160.7 million persons (or 42.6% of the urban population) live in these Million Plus UAs/Cities as per Census 2011.

Key Points

• The term ‘metropolitan city’ was first termed by Murphy (‘metro city’) and Mumford (‘metropolitan city’). According to Mumford, a metropolis is one of the stages in the evolution of urban settlement. As per the Census Commission of India, a metropolitan city is one having a population of over 4 million (a metropolitan city is the Umland of a metropolitan city).
• A wider definition would, however, include all the cities that are having a population of more than 1 million. The areas of influence of metropolitan cities have been demarcated based on- Air travel, Railway passenger and commodity flows, Lang distance telephone calls
• Metropolitan is derived from the Latin word “municipium” it means “Free City”. The 74th Amendment to the Indian Constitution defines a metropolitan area as An area having a population of 10 Lakh or 1 Million or more, comprised in one or more districts and consisting of two or more Municipalities or Panchayats or other contiguous areas, specified by the Governor by public notification to be a Metropolitan area.

• The word Metropolitan is derived from the Greek word metropolitans meaning citizen of a mother state. A metropolitan area is a region housed in a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing.

• According to the 2011 census, there were 46 million-plus cities in India, with Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata having populations of over 10 million. There are 53 urban agglomerations in India with a population of 1 million or more as of 2011 against 35 in 2001. A metro area usually comprises multiple jurisdictions and municipalities. As social, economic, and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions.

Additional Information

• Mumbai’s largest city, Delhi NCR’s largest Urban Agglomeration. As per the preliminary results of the Census 2011, released by the Registrar General of India, Greater Mumbai with a population of 18,414,288 continues to be India’s biggest city, followed by Delhi - 16,314,838 and Kolkata- 14,112,536.
• These three cities are India’s mega-cities with a 10 million plus population. But, when we consider Urban Agglomeration as an extended city comprising a built-up area of the central core and any suburbs linked by continuous urban area, we have a change at the top.
• Delhi NCR, with the inclusion of Gurgaon, Faridabad, Noida, and Ghaziabad become the No.1 Urban Agglomeration with a population of 21,753,486, ahead of 20,748,395 Mumbai Metropolitan Region comprising Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Thane, Vasai-Virar, Bhiwandi, and Panvel. Kolkata has clocked to moderate growth.

Explanation-

Urbanization:

• Urban areas are characterised by high human population density and vast human-built features.
• Urban areas are like cities or towns, developed by the process of urbanisation.
• Due to heavy population, urbanisation and industrialisation, several problems and threats have arisen in urban areas.

The problem of urban areas:

The correct statement is 1 and 3.Key Points

• Indian villages are typically considered the basic unit of society in rural areas.
• They are usually small and closely-knit communities where people know each other and have strong social ties.
• Villages often have their own local governance systems, such as Panchayati Raj institutions, which are responsible for decision-making and administration at the local level. So, statement 1 is correct.
• While it is true that Indian villages generally have a simpler way of life compared to urban areas, this is not unique to Indian villages alone.
• Many rural areas around the world are characterized by simple and economical lifestyles, as people in these areas often have limited access to resources and infrastructure.
• However, Indian villages do have some unique characteristics, such as the prominence of agriculture and animal husbandry as primary sources of livelihood. Hence statement 2 is incorrect.
• Indian villages are known for their rich cultural heritage and for preserving traditional practices and customs.
• Each village typically has its own distinct culture, with unique customs, beliefs, and social norms.
• Many of these cultural practices have been passed down from generation to generation, and have been preserved despite the influence of modernization and globalization.

• Some examples of cultural practices that are still prevalent in Indian villages include folk music and dance, traditional arts and crafts, and local festivals and rituals. Thus statement 3 is correct.

So, we can conclude that the correct statement is 1 and 3.

• According to P. A. Sorokin and Zimmerman's 'Principles of Rural-Urban Sociology,' the variables that distinguish rural from urban communities include
  • occupation,
  • population size
  • density,
  • mobility,
  • differentiation,
  • stratification of the population.
• This distinction is appli­cable only to traditional rural communities and the developing industrial urban areas of the 19th century and early years of the 20th century.

Additional Information

• In a more heterogeneous societal culture, many different values and beliefs are held by diverse population groups. This situation is characterized by a multicultural society.
• In a homogeneous societal culture, the underlying values and beliefs are shared and pervasive; thus a dominant set of cultural beliefs exist.
• Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin was one of the most colourful, erudite and controversial figures in American Sociology.
• A Komi peasant, Sorokin was born on January 21, 1889, in the village of Turya located in the cold, remote regions of Northern Russia. Sorokin was three when his mother died and the family split up.

Thus, the criteria used by Sorokin in distinguishing a rural society from an urban society are Occupation, Size of Population and Mobility.

Sociologists have divided society into hierarchical stages on the basis of technology, instruments, means of living.

Technologies involve the use of techniques, processes, and material objects to produce goods, provide services, and connect people. Sociologists study the social interactions that result and how they are impacted by different technologies. Sociology also measures the uneven use of technology among social groups. Most sociologists define social class as a grouping based on similar social factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. These factors affect how much power and prestige a person has. Social stratification reflects an unequal distribution of resources. In most cases, having more money means having more power or more opportunities.

Blumer coined the term symbolic interactionism in 1937, keeping this sociological perspective alive through the early 1950s at Chicago, and then in California where he was a professor at the University of Californa in Berkeley.

The term “symbolic interaction” refers, of course, to the peculiar and distinctive character of interaction as it takes place between human beings. 

With the help of the participant observation-based research the college teacher will be able to find out the real situation when s/he will be live with those students to know what kind of conditions are provided to students.

Participant observation 

• The researcher interacts with people in everyday life while collecting information.
• It is a unique method for investigating the enormously rich, complex, conflictual, problematic, and diverse experiences, thoughts, feelings, and activities of human beings and the meanings of their existence.

The Western-educated progressive Parsis like Dadabhai Naoroji, J.B. Wacha, S.S. Bangali and Naoroji Furdonji founded the Rahanumai Mazdayasanan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) in 1851. The prime objective of the association was- “the regeneration of the social condition of the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristine purity”. Rast Goftar (Voice of Truth) was its weekly organ.

In conflict theory, deviant behaviors are actions that do not comply with social institutions.

• The institution's ability to change norms, wealth, or status comes into conflict with the individual.
• The legal rights of poor folks might be ignored, while the middle-class side with the elites rather than the poor.
• Culture conflict theory is also known as cultural deviance theory.
• This theory suggests that crime is caused due to the clash of values that arises when different social groups have different ideas of acceptable behavior.
• In other words, different social groups have different cultural beliefs and ideas that conflict, and this conflict sometimes leads to crime.

The aggregates of incumbents of positions with identical role interest are known as a quasi group. It is an aggregate or combination, which lacks structure or organisation, and whose members may be unaware, or less aware, of the existence of quasi group. Social classes, status groups, age and gender groups, crowds can be seen as examples of quasi group.

Refer to the first paragraph of the passage. “People's participation is one of the foremost prerequisites of development process both from procedural and philosophical perspectives.”

During the 1980s, when all Western governments were willing servants of big business are most influential. In countries like the US and the UK 'corporatist,' institutions reached their most developed form after the Second World War. The 1980s saw a retreat from corporatism in these and other countries. During the 19th century, it is difficult to identify a well-defined system of bargaining between government, workers, and employers

According to postmodernization rationality, reason, and progress ideas of modernity are considered gone by or dead. Post-Modernity refers to the view that the institutions and ways of living characteristic of Modernity have been replaced to such a profound extent that our society is fundamentally different from the 'modern' society. In contrast, post-modernism is a term that refers to new ways of thinking about thought.

Social stratification is either ascribed, acquired, or constructed. An ascribed status is a position in a social group that one is born into or has no control over. This is different from achieved status, which a person earns based on their choices or their efforts. Examples of ascribed status include gender, eye color, race, and ethnicity.

Marx's definition of capitalism is a society organized around capital -- that is, wealth in various forms that can be used to generate income without having to labor. The core institution of a capitalist society is private property, in which people can accumulate unlimited wealth, invest it how they please, and transfer it to their children. So, 1 is correct.

Having an increased amount of personal wealth puts the bourgeoisie at a negotiating advantage against members of the proletariat since the bourgeoisie can wait longer for the other party to accept their terms. The members of the proletariat, because they have to eat, have to accept the terms imposed upon them by the bourgeoisie. So, 2 is correct. Additionally, the bourgeoisie can always craft laws to disadvantage the proletariat or pay people to threaten (or kill) members of the proletariat that are not sufficiently malleable.