UGC NET Paper 2 Sociology Mock Test - 5 - UGC NET MCQ

Jajmani system or Yajman system was an economic system most notably found in villages of India in which lower castes performed various functions for upper castes (Functional interdependence of castes) and received grain or other goods in return. It was an occupational division of labour involving a system of role-relationships that enabled Village social structure to be mostly self-sufficient.

The correct answer is the Gender Inequality Index (GII). ​

Key Points The Gender Inequality Index (GII) was introduced in the 2010 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). This replaced the previously used Gender Development Index (GDI).

The aim of the GII is to measure the loss of achievement within a country due to gender inequality, and it uses three dimensions to do so: reproductive health, empowerment, and economic status.

• Reproductive health is measured by two indicators: maternal mortality ratio and adolescent birth rates.
• Empowerment is assessed through two other indicators: the proportion of parliamentary seats held by each sex and the percentage of the population with at least some secondary education, divided by sex.
• Lastly, the economic status is measured through labor market participation rates, again divided by sex.
  • The outcome is an index that ranges from 0 to 1 with higher values representing higher inequality.
• The introduction of the GII represented an attempt to develop a more comprehensive understanding of gender inequality, moving beyond merely assessing women's participation in education and work (as the GDI did) to include considerations of health-related inequalities and empowerment.

Key Points

• L.M. Singhvi Committee
  • ​​1986 under chairmanship of L.M. Singhvi.

Objectives

• To review the Indian Constitution and recommend changes, amendments, or revisions deemed necessary to ensure its relevance, efficacy, and responsiveness to contemporary challenges and aspirations.

​Recommendations

• Giving constitutional recognition to PRIs.
• More financial powers to panchayats.
• Establishment of Judicial tribunals in each state which will have power to adjudicate matters relating to the elections and functioning of the PRIs.​

​​​Thus, Option (4) L.M. Singhvi is correct answer.

Additional Information

• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee
  • ​Established in 1957 under chairmanship of Balwant Rai Mehta.

Objectives​

• To examine the functioning of local self-government institutions, particularly at the village level, and suggest measures for their strengthening and empowerment.
• To promote democratic decentralization and enhance the role of local communities in decision-making and development processes.​​

​​​​Recommendations

• Proposed the establishment of a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) – at the village, block, and district levels.
• Based on its recommendations, the Government of India enacted the Panchayati Raj Act in 1959, which provided a legal framework for the establishment and functioning of PRIs across the country.
• Ashok Mehta Committee
  • ​​Established in 1977 under the chairmanship of Ashok Mehta.

Objectives

• ​To suggest measures to revive and strengthen the PRIs.

​Recommendations

• Establishment of two-tier system instead of three tier system. Two tier will have Zila Parishad at the district level and the Mandal Panchayat for a group of villages.
• Giving financial powers to these institutions in form of compulsory taxation powers.
• Swaminathan Committee
  • Establishment in 2004 under chairmanship of Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. Also known as "National Commission on Farmers".

Objectives

• Examining the various aspects of agriculture in India, including agricultural policies, rural distress, farmer suicides, land reforms, and the welfare of farmers.

Recommendations

• Implementation of comprehensive agricultural reforms, including land reforms and tenancy rights.
• Investment in agricultural infrastructure, such as irrigation, rural roads, storage facilities, and market linkages.
• Introduction of farmer-friendly policies, including minimum support prices (MSPs), crop insurance, and agricultural extension services.
• Active engagement in promoting the cause of sustainable agriculture practices, conservation of natural resources, and biodiversity.
• Strengthening of agricultural research and development, technology dissemination, and farmer education and training.
• Creation of social safety nets and support mechanisms for vulnerable farming communities, including women and smallholder farmers.​​

The correct option is 'To have desirable consequences from ethnic groups, there should be some friendly attempts to reduce the gap between them'.

Key Points

Ethnic groups are living in proximity:

• Living in proximity alone is not a definitive reason for the failure of integration.
• Proximity doesn't guarantee positive interactions or address underlying issues that may hinder integration.

Attempt to develop a degree of homogeneity doomed to failure:

• Reasoning: The attempt to enforce homogeneity, where diverse ethnic groups are pressured to conform to a single cultural or societal norm, often leads to failure.
• Issues with Homogeneity: Ethnic diversity is a reality in many societies, and attempting to erase this diversity by enforcing homogeneity can result in resentment, cultural clashes, and a lack of inclusivity.
• Importance of Diversity: Successful integration often involves embracing and celebrating diversity, recognizing and respecting the distinct cultural identities within a society.

To have desirable consequences from ethnic groups, there should be some friendly attempts to reduce the gap between them:

• Reasoning: This option emphasizes the importance of fostering positive interactions and understanding between ethnic groups.
• Friendly Attempts: Building bridges and reducing gaps through friendly initiatives contribute to improved relations and cooperation.
• Positive Approach: This approach acknowledges the significance of social cohesion through mutual respect and understanding.

Derecognition of minority ethnic cultures:

• Derecognition of minority ethnic cultures can lead to cultural marginalization and exclusion.
• It does not promote a harmonious integration process and can result in the suppression of cultural diversity.

Additional Information

Inclusive Policies:

• In addition to friendly attempts, inclusive policies that address social, economic, and educational disparities contribute to successful integration.
• A positive and inclusive approach recognizes and values the contributions of all ethnic groups within a society.

In summary, while option 3 highlights the importance of friendly attempts to bridge gaps between ethnic groups, it's crucial to consider a holistic approach that encompasses inclusive policies and recognizes the value of cultural diversity for successful community integration.

The correct answer is M. Cernea. Key Points

• Michael (Mihail) M. Cernea (born 14 October 1931) is a sociologist and anthropologist born in Romania who reestablished himself in the USA in 1974 where he has since lived. He is widely recognized for introducing sociological and anthropological approaches to the World Bank.
• He worked as the World Bank's Senior Adviser for Sociology and Social Policy until 1997. He has published on a wide range of the effects of development, including social change, social forestry, participation, grassroots organizations, and population resettlement. He is the author of the term "development-induced displacement and resettlement".
• The book "Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Development" is authored by Michael M. Cernea.
• Cernea's work emphasizes the importance of conducting comprehensive social impact assessments as an integral part of development planning. Social impact assessment involves analyzing the potential effects of a development project on the social fabric of affected communities, and Cernea's contributions have helped shape the methodology and practice of social impact assessment.

Additional Information

• Amartya Sen is a Nobel laureate economist renowned for his contributions to social choice theory. His work has explored issues related to welfare economics, poverty, and development. Sen is a key proponent of the capability approach, which shifts the focus from traditional measures of well-being (such as income) to individuals' capabilities—their ability to achieve valuable functions.
• S.C. Dube, or Surendra Chandra Dube, was an influential Indian sociologist and anthropologist. His work contributed significantly to the understanding of Indian society, particularly focusing on rural communities. Dube is known for his extensive village studies, emphasizing the importance of fieldwork and ethnographic research. His studies delved into the social structure, kinship systems, and economic life of rural communities in India.
• Ram Krishna Mukherji was a philosopher and scholar of comparative religion. He made significant contributions to Indian philosophy, exploring themes related to consciousness, metaphysics, and spirituality. Mukherji's philosophical work often focused on Advaita Vedanta, a school of Hindu philosophy that emphasizes the non-dual nature of reality.

Thus, The author of "Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Development" is M. Cernea.

​In the late nineteenth century, Modern liberalism is a type of social liberalism.

Key Points

​Minimal state:

• A state with the least possible amount of powers.
• It is a term used in political philosophy where the state's duties are so minimal that they cannot be reduced much further.
• The minimal state is a notion found within a particular variant of the limited-government variety of libertarianism.
• In the conception offered here, it was introduced by Robert Nozick, whose Anarchy, State, and Utopia is the most influential work supporting libertarianism by an American philosopher.
• Although Nozick criticized individualist anarchism, he did hold that the minimal state was the form of government that was morally justifiable.

Additional Information

• Positive liberalism is another name for modern liberalism.
• It blends beliefs in equality and civil liberties with a checked-and-validated market economy and advocacy for social justice.
• Modem Modern liberalism does embrace state interference as a cure-all for all the issues that society faces.
• Modern Liberalism is different from classical liberalism in terms of state interference in the life of individuals.

Therefore, the Minimal state is an aspect that does Modern Liberalism NOT believe in.

The correct option is 'Rajbanshi'.

Key Points

• Namasudra: While numerically significant, Namasudra is the second largest Scheduled Caste group in West Bengal. According to the 2011 Census data, they constitute around 39.95% of the state's total Scheduled Caste population.
• Rajbanshi: With approximately 41.23% of the total Scheduled Caste population, Rajbanshis hold the top spot. This makes them the dominant Scheduled Caste group in West Bengal.
• Pod: Pods represent a considerably smaller portion, forming around 5.27% of the state's Scheduled Caste population.
• Bagdi: Similar to Pods, Bagdis comprise a smaller community within the Scheduled Caste population, accounting for around 1.75%.

Additional InformationScheduled Caste Population in West Bengal:

• West Bengal has a diverse population of Scheduled Castes, consisting of various communities with unique cultural and historical backgrounds.

Census Data:

• For accurate and up-to-date information on the representation of Scheduled Caste groups in West Bengal, it's essential to refer to the latest Census data or official demographic surveys conducted by relevant authorities.

Sociocultural Significance:

• Different Scheduled Caste communities in West Bengal have contributed to the sociocultural and political dynamics of the state, shaping its history and identity.

Community Empowerment:

• Understanding the demographic distribution of Scheduled Caste groups is crucial for policy-makers to formulate effective strategies for community development and empowerment.

In summary, Rajbanshi is identified as having the highest representation among Scheduled Caste groups in West Bengal.

The correct answer is 1 and 2.Key Points

• Bureaucracy is a pyramid of officials who rationally conduct the work of large organizations.
• This statement is generally correct, bureaucracy refers to a hierarchical structure of officials who follow formal rules and procedures in their work.
• The idea of bureaucracy was first introduced by the sociologist Max Weber, who argued that it was the most efficient way to organize large institutions.
• Ideology is a system of ideas which sanctions a set of norms.
• This statement is also generally correct, an ideology is a set of beliefs or values that guide an individual's or a group's actions and decisions.
• Ideologies can include political, social, or religious beliefs and can provide a framework for understanding the world and how it should be organized.
• Caste is a social status, which includes occupation assigned by heredity.
• This statement is not entirely correct, caste refers to a rigid social hierarchy that is based on birth and is associated with specific occupations and social roles.
• However, while caste is often associated with heredity and occupation, it is not necessarily true that all castes are assigned occupations solely based on birth.
• Some castes may be associated with specific occupations, but this is not always the case.

• Additionally, the caste system is associated with social and economic discrimination and inequality, which is not captured by this statement.

So we can conclude that the correct answer is 1 and 2.

Article 15(3) specifically allows the State to make special provisions for women and children.

Important PointsArticle 15:

• Article 15 of the Indian Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. It states that the State shall not discriminate against any citizen on these grounds.
• While Article 15(1) lays down the general principle of non-discrimination, Article 15(3) allows the State to make special provisions for women and children.
• This clause empowers the government to enact laws or implement policies that promote the welfare and empowerment of women and children, even if it involves differential treatment based on gender or age.
• The provision in Article 15(3) recognizes the historical and social disadvantages faced by women and children in India.
• It enables the State to implement affirmative action measures such as reservations, scholarships, and other welfare programs aimed at addressing gender disparities and ensuring the protection and development of women and children.

A state is a “body that successfully claims a monopoly of legitimate force in a particular territory."- Max Weber.

Important Points

• Max Weber was a German sociologist, historian, jurist, and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society.
• He was deeply interested in the state and bureaucracy.
• It was Max Weber’s well-known definition, a state is a “body that successfully claims a monopoly of legitimate force in a particular territory.”
• Thus, the correct answer is Max Weber.

The correct answer is Marxist Theory.
Key Points

Theories of labour welfare

1. The Policing Theory of Labour Welfare: The policing theory is based on assumption that Human Being is so much selfish and always tries for own benefits whether on the cost of others welfare. Any of the employers will not work for the welfare of employees until he is forced to do so. This theory is based on the contention that a minimum standard of welfare is necessary for workers.
2. The Religious Theory of Labour Welfare: This is based on the concept that man is essentially “a religious animal.” Even today, many acts of man are related to religious sentiments and beliefs. These religious feelings sometimes prompt an employer to take up welfare activities in the expectation of future emancipation either in this life or after it.
3. The Philanthropic Theory of Labour Welfare: Philanthropy is the inclination to do or practice doing well to one's fellow men. Man is basically self-centered and acts of these kinds stem from personal motivation, when some employers take compassion on their fellowmen, they may undertake labor welfare measures for their workers.
4. The Paternalistic or Trusteeship Theory of Labour Welfare: In this theory, it is held that the industrialists or employers hold the total industrial estate, properties, and profits accruing from them in trust for the workmen, for him, and for society.
5. The Placating Theory of Labour Welfare: As labour groups are becoming better organized and are becoming demanding and militant, being more conscious of their rights and privileges than even before, their demand for higher wages and better standards increases. The placing theory advocates timely and periodical acts of labour welfare to appease the workers.
6. The Public Relations Theory of Labour Welfare: This theory provides the basis for an atmosphere of goodwill between labour and management, and also between management and the public, labour welfare programs under this theory, work as a sort of an advertisement and help an organization to project its good image and build up and promote good and healthy public relations
7. The Functional Theory of Labour Welfare: The concept behind this theory is that a happy and healthy person is a better, more productive worker. Here, welfare is used as a means to secure, preserve and develop the efficiency and productivity of labour.

The correct answer is Individualism, Universalism, Legal and Administrative order.

Key Points

• Development is the process of taking a series of actions to enhance a society's social, political, and economic well-being and to enhance the standard of living for a country, region, local community, or individual per specific aims and objectives.
• According to Parsons, Western cultural norms that encouraged competition and economic prosperity include:
  • Individualism
  • Universalism
  • Legal and Administrative order
  • Achieved Status and Meritocracy

• For many years, Talcott Parsons (1902–82) ranked among the top sociologists in the world and was the best-known in the country. He developed a broad theoretical framework for a societal study known as structural functionalism.
• The majority of Parsons' analysis was formed in his significant writings, which include:
  • The Structure of Social Action (1937),
  • The Social System (1951),
  • Structure and Process in Modern Societies (1960),
  • Sociological Theory and Modern Society (1968),
  • Politics and Social Structure (1969).

The Correct answer is Mixed Economy

Key Points

• Mixed Economy​
  • A mixed economic system is a system that combines both capitalism and socialism. A mixed economic system protects private property and allows a level of economic freedom in the use of capital, but also allows for governments to interfere in economic activities in order to achieve social aims.
  • Simply Mixed economies maintain private ownership and control of most of the means of production under government regulations.

Additional Information

• Capitalistic Economy
  • ​A capitalistic economy is an economic system in which private individuals or businesses own capital goods. The production of goods and services is based on supply and demand in the general market or market economy rather than through central planning or planned economy or command economy
• Socialistic Economy
  • A socialistic economy is an economic and political system based on public ownership of the means of production.
  • All legal production and distribution decisions are made by the government in a socialist system. The government also determines all output and pricing levels and supplies its citizens with everything from food to healthcare.
• Globalists Economy
  • A globalization Economy is an economy it has interdependence of nations around the globe fostered through free trade i.e cross-border trade of commodities and services, the flow of international capital, and the wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of market frontiers and the rapidly growing significance of information in all types of productive activities.

The correct answer is 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Key Points

• Labour Welfare – Aims and Objectives
  • Labour welfare aims at the total development of worker's personalities based on humanitarian grounds. It aims at helping the needy, the poor, and the most deserving community. A major objective of labor welfare is to minimize the exploitation of workers. Management wants efficient, productive, hardworking, sincere, and law-abiding workmen, which can be attracted by providing liberal welfare measures. Such measures also improve industrial relations in the industry.
• From various studies, the summarized objectives are to:
  • Provide social comfort to employees. Hence, Statement 1 is correct.
  • Support overall improvement of employees. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
  • Provide financial support indirectly to the employees. Hence, Statement 3 is correct.
  • Contribute to developing a sense of responsibility and belongingness among employees. Hence, Statement 4 is correct.
  • Improve working conditions at the workplace for employees.
  • Maintain and retain the existing workforce.
  • Reduce the rate of absenteeism from work and labor turnover from the job.
  • Improve lives of employees comfortable and happy.
  • Improve productivity and efficiency of employees at the workplace.
  • Provide healthy and proper working conditions.
  • Ensure betterment of employees and families and society as a whole.

The correct answer is Only Statement 2 and Statement 3 are correct.

Explanation: Neoliberalism challenges the realist assumption that international anarchy leads to conflict (Statement 1). It advocates for building international institutions to manage global issues and asserts that states can achieve mutual gains through cooperation and interdependence (Statement 2 and Statement 3).

Key PointsNeoliberalism, particularly in the context of international relations, presents a significant challenge to the realist assumption that international anarchy inherently leads to conflict. It does so by advocating a different view of how states interact and the possibilities for cooperation in the international system. To understand this, it's essential to first consider the core tenets of realism and then contrast them with the principles of neoliberalism.

Realism in International Relations

• Anarchical System: Realism views the international system as anarchic, meaning there is no overarching authority above states. Each state is sovereign and operates in a self-help system.
• State-Centric: Realists focus on states as the primary actors in international relations, with national interests and security being paramount.
• Power and Security: The pursuit of power and security is seen as the central goal of states. Realists argue that states are driven by a desire to ensure their survival in an uncertain world.
• Zero-Sum Perspective: Interactions between states are often viewed as zero-sum, where gains for one state mean losses for another.
• Skepticism of International Cooperation: Realists are generally skeptical about the prospects for long-term international cooperation, as states are primarily concerned with relative gains and their own interests.

Neoliberalism in International Relations: Neoliberalism emerged as a response to the limitations of realism, and it challenges several of its key assumptions:

• Importance of International Institutions: Neoliberalism argues that international institutions and organizations play a critical role in fostering cooperation among states. These institutions can provide frameworks for cooperation, reduce uncertainties, and set norms and rules that guide state behavior.
• Mutual Gains and Interdependence: Contrary to the realist zero-sum perspective, neoliberals believe that international cooperation can lead to mutual gains. Economic interdependence, for instance, makes cooperation more attractive than conflict, as states stand to benefit more from maintaining peaceful, cooperative relations.
• Non-State Actors and Issues: Neoliberalism acknowledges the role of non-state actors (like multinational corporations, NGOs, and international organizations) in international relations. It also focuses on a broader range of issues beyond mere state security, including economic, environmental, and human rights concerns.
• Complex Interdependence: This concept, introduced by neoliberal scholars like Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, suggests that states are connected through multiple channels (both formal and informal), and there is no hierarchy of issues. This interdependence reduces the likelihood of conflict and increases the potential for cooperation.
• Relative vs. Absolute Gains: Neoliberalism is more concerned with absolute gains rather than relative gains. This means states are more interested in ensuring that they benefit from international interactions, not necessarily that they benefit more than other states.

Additional Information Neoliberalism challenges the realist view of anarchy leading inevitably to conflict by suggesting that:

• International anarchy does not preclude the possibility of cooperation.
• Interdependence and the role of international institutions can mitigate the anarchic nature of the international system.
• States can be driven by absolute gains and common interests, not just by power and security concerns.
• This perspective has influenced international relations theory and practice, leading to a greater emphasis on building and maintaining international institutions and on the pursuit of cooperative solutions to global challenges.

The correct answer is - B only.

Important Points

• The democratic essence at the heart of many traditional village societies, despite their hierarchical structure, is reflected through village assemblies or councils composed of elders (B), as mentioned in the passage.
• There's no mention that wealth (A) or strict adherence to gender roles (C) contributes to democratic essence, nor is the significant role of lineage (D) highlighted as a reflection of democratic essence.

The correct answer is - The Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution.

Important Points

• The passage highlights the Industrial and French Revolutions as crucial factors leading to the development of sociology.
• These events brought about significant social, economic, and political changes that disrupted traditional social orders in Europe.
• The resulting societal transformations, such as urbanization and the emergence of new social problems, stimulated intellectual interest in studying and understanding these changes systematically.

The correct answer is: Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation of A.Key Points Assertion (A): Labor welfare improves the moral and mental conditions of the workers.

• This assertion states that providing labor welfare measures can lead to an improvement in the moral and mental conditions of the workers.
• This assertion is correct, as numerous studies have shown that workers who are provided with adequate welfare measures, such as insurance facilities, good working conditions, medical facilities, etc., are likely to be more satisfied with their job and have better mental health.
• When employers provide welfare measures, workers feel that they are being taken care of and valued, which can have a positive impact on their overall well-being.

Reason (R): Insurance facility and good working conditions create an atmosphere of security and feeling in insecurity is removed.

• This reason explains why labor welfare measures can have a positive impact on the mental and moral conditions of the workers.
• It states that providing insurance facilities and good working conditions can create an atmosphere of security, which can help in removing the feeling of insecurity among the workers.
• This reason is also correct, as workers who are provided with insurance and good working conditions are likely to feel more secure and valued, which can have a positive impact on their mental and moral conditions.

Important Points

• The reason why this answer is correct is that both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and logically connected.
  • Providing labor welfare measures can lead to an improvement in the moral and mental conditions of the workers, as workers feel that they are being taken care of and valued.
  • Insurance facilities and good working conditions can create an atmosphere of security, which can help in removing the feeling of insecurity among the workers. Therefore, the reason explains the assertion correctly.

In conclusion, the correct answer is that both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct, and Reason (R) explains the Assertion (A) correctly.

Shuddhi Movement was started by Arya Samaj in the earlier part of the 20th century to bring back the people who had converted to Islam and Christianity from Hinduism. Swami Dayanand Sarawati played a prominent role in the shuddhi movement. The Shuddhi Movement challenged the Christian missionaries who tried to convert the uneducated, poor and depressed classes of the Hindus. Because of his saintly character, courage and moving oration, more than 18,000 Muslims returned to the Hindu fold in some parts of the U.P. alone. They also succeeded in reconverting a number of Hindus who had been forcibly converted to Islam during the Mopla rebellion in Kerala in 1920.

Residual group experiment is not a type of experimental method.

The experimental method

• The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment, and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.
• The experimental method is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.

Abstract Sentiments are provide a focus for allegiance.

• Sentiments pervade daily life and are found in several artistic forms: music, poetry, literature, and painting.
• Types of sentiments include “positive”, “negative” and “neutral” along with more intense emotions like angry, happy and sad or interest or not interested etc; while abstract sentiments provide a focus for allegiance.

A cross-sectional survey collects data to make inferences about a population of interest (universe) at one point in time. Cross-sectional surveys have been described as snapshots of the populations about which they gather data.

Ethnography, Welfare, Development, Empowerment is the sequence of perspectives on gender and development in India.

Gender and development is an interdisciplinary field of research and applied study that implements a feminist approach to understanding and addressing the disparate impact that economic development and globalization have on people based upon their location, gender, class background, and other socio-political identities.

Socialism is the social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Hence, a socialist society destroys private ownership of means of production and its place creates public ownership of means of production.

The social stratum is a typical indicator of social inequality.

The arrangement is to decorate a member of a social order in a hierarchical order, in which there are considerable variations in reputation, property, influence and other characteristics of social status.

Sampling Cases" can be defined as a sampling of people, newspapers, television programs etc. In general, sampling in case study research involves decisions made by the researchers regarding the strategies of sampling, the number of case studies, and the definition of the unit of analysis.

Only the null hypothesis is tested in the context of testing of hypothesis. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis in which the researcher tries to reject or nullify the hypothesis.

Decentralization is associated with dedifferentiation, the process by which parts of the city have become less specialized in the functions and services they provide: the urban centre is replaced by numerous industrial estates. This is due to the movement of shops and leisure services to the periphery of the city, along with networks of motorways and railway lines. The inner city then becomes a place that is amenable to women and the middle classes, who move back into it.