Test: C.O.P.D & Bronchiectasis and Suppurative Lung Diseases- 1 - NEET PG MCQ

Gold Criteria for Severity of Airflow Obstruction In COPD

Abbreviation: COPD stands for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; GOLD refers to the Global Initiative for Lung Disease.

In ILD, oxygen levels are typically normal but can decrease due to a diffusion defect. The levels are further reduced during a 6-minute walk test.

Additionally, the washout of carbon dioxide results in respiratory alkalosis as a consequence of hyperventilation.

Reid's index is a ratio between the thickness of the submucosal mucus secreting glands and the thickness between the epithelium and cartilage that covers the bronchi.
A normal Reid Index should be smaller than 0.4, the thickness of the wall is always more than double the thickness of the glands it contains. Chronic smoking causes submucosal gland hypertrophy and hyperplasia, leading to a Reid Index of >0.5 indicating chronic bronchitis.

Effective Pharmacologic Interventions

Smoking does not lead to primary brain cancer. However, it is linked to kidney and bladder cancers. Tobacco use is responsible for cancers affecting the:

• lip
• oral cavity
• nasopharynx
• oropharynx
• nasal cavity
• stomach
• esophagus
• pancreas
• colon
• rectum
• genitourinary system
• acute myeloid leukaemia

Central bronchiectasis is frequently observed in conjunction with ABPA and is also associated with cystic fibrosis. In cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis is central and primarily affects the upper lobes, unlike post-infectious bronchiectasis, which typically occurs in the lower lobes.

• In adults with cystic fibrosis, the disease tends to be more widespread than in idiopathic bronchiectasis, involving five or six lobes.
• In conditions with compromised mucociliary clearance, involvement of the lower lobes is more prevalent.

Bronchiectasis sicca, or dry bronchiectasis, is an uncommon condition characterised by all the symptoms of bronchiectasis, but notably lacking the excessive sputum production typically associated with it. HRCT reveals abnormal dilation of the bronchial tree without the presence of infective sputum. This condition arises as a result of tuberculosis.

Due to the presence of infection in the lungs, hematogenous spread of the infection may result in abscess formation in either the brain or the lungs. As this infection is chronic, AA type amyloidosis can develop.

Rhonchi are observed in chronic bronchitis, whereas they are absent in emphysema, where the presence of blebs in the airways results in air trapping.

• A hyper-inflated chest is typical in emphysema.
• The deterioration of alveoli in emphysema results in a decreased DLCO.

Emphysema is defined by damage to the respiratory bronchioles, which results in the formation of blebs. This leads to air being trapped in the lungs, causing hypoxia. However, these individuals do not exhibit cyanosis and are referred to as PINK PUFFERS.
The primary cause of emphysema is cigarette smoking, and the specific type identified is known as centri-acinar emphysema. Patients suffering from this condition often develop type 1 respiratory failure, and the resulting hypoxia contributes to a barrel-shaped chest in these individuals.

Varenicline functions as a partial agonist for the α4β2 subtype of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Additionally, it interacts with α3β4 and has a weak effect on α3β2 and α6-containing receptors.

• As a partial agonist, varenicline attaches to and partially activates the α4β2 receptor, but it does not elicit the full response that nicotine does.
• Due to its competitive binding at these receptors, varenicline inhibits nicotine's ability to bind and activate the mesolimbic dopamine system.

Varenicline also functions as an agonist at 5-HT receptors, which might play a role in the mood-altering effects associated with varenicline.

Increased diffusion capacity can be observed in:

• Acute congestive heart failure
• Asthma
• Polycythaemia
• Pulmonary haemorrhage/Good pasture syndrome

Decreased diffusion capacity is noted in:

• Pulmonary fibrosis
• Emphysema
• Pulmonary hypertension

The three primary symptoms in COPD include:

• cough
• sputum production
• exertional dyspnoea

Numerous patients experience these symptoms for months or even years prior to seeking medical assistance. While the progression of airflow obstruction is a gradual phenomenon, many individuals attribute the beginning of their condition to an acute illness or exacerbation. In advanced cases, some patients exhibit a paradoxical inward movement of the rib cage during inspiration (known as Hoover's sign). This occurs due to a change in the vector of diaphragmatic contraction on the rib cage as a consequence of chronic hyperinflation.

Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs as a result of a bulla rupture in an emphysematous individual. Chronic hypoxia associated with chronic bronchitis results in:

• Pulmonary artery hypertension
• Cor pulmonale

Retention of CO₂ causes respiratory acidosis. The prolonged duration of the condition can lead to AA-type amyloidosis.

Extensive pulmonary embolism results in acute cor pulmonale.

Pulmonary embolism results in cor pulmonale, characterised by:

• loud P₂
• murmur of TR
• S₃ gallop
• RV heave
• ascites

The lungs exhibit pulmonary oligamia without any distinct findings.

The CXR reveals an air fluid level characteristic of a lung abscess. A history of alcoholism increases the likelihood of suppression of the protective airway reflexes due to alcohol consumption.

• This allows anaerobic organisms present in saliva to enter the airway, potentially leading to the formation of a suppurative lung abscess.
• The primary clinical indicator of a lung abscess is a change in the posture of purulent sputum.

The most effective antibiotic for treating an anaerobic lung abscess is Clindamycin. In this instance, Metronidazole is ineffective. Tuberculosis typically causes cavities, particularly in the RUZ.

Bronchiectasis is a consequence of pulmonary TB (both primary and post-primary) and arises due to endobronchial TB. Crackling sounds are produced when air passes through secretions in the significantly dilated bronchi associated with bronchiectasis. These crackles are coarse and exhibit a gurgling quality.

Secondary tubercular bronchiectasis results from the destruction of lung parenchyma, particularly affecting the upper lobes (Bronchiectasis Sicca). In this scenario, haemoptysis occurs, but sputum is absent because the secretions cannot drain, which leads to fine crackles.

• Early inspiratory crackles: Bronchiolitis, chronic bronchitis, and asthma
• Mid-inspiratory crackles: Bilateral in the lower lung fields, often seen in pulmonary oedema
• Late inspiratory crackles: Associated with interstitial lung disease, atelectasis, and resolving pneumonia
• Bibasilar crackles: Present in both phases of respiration, indicative of interstitial pulmonary fibrosis
• Bronchial breathing: I:E Ratio = 1:1, commonly found in pneumonia

The CT scan reveals a cavity with thick walls in the right lung, observed within the clinical context of diabetes, which is likely indicative of a fungal infection.