Practice Test: Ancient History and Medieval- 2 - UPSC MCQ

• lltutmish (1210-36) is credited for standardizing the coinage of the Delhi Sultanate. The currency system established by him in its essentials survived the Delhi Sultanate. He introduced gold and silver tankas and a copper jital that was reckoned at 1/48th of tanka in North India and 1/50th in the Deccan after the conquest of Devagiri. 
• 'A firm ratio of 1:10 between gold and silver appears to have been established. For studying the currency system we not only have the testimony of the chronicles but also the physical evidence available in the form of surviving coins (this is called numismatic evidence).
• The Sultanate mints generally uttered coins in three metals: gold, silver and billon (copper mixed with a very small quantity of silver).
• The main coins were tanka and jital but some smaller currencies were also in circulation. Barani mentions dangs and dirams in use at the capital Delhi.
• The equation between these currencies in the north has been worked out as 1 silver tanka = 48 jital = 192 dangs = 480 dirams. Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.

• Numerous religious sects emerged in the middle Gangetic basin in the sixth century B.C. which held a critical view of post-Vedic life and society. Of all these, Buddhism and Jainism were the most potent religious reform movements.
• Vadrhaman Mahavira was born in 540 B.C. in a Kshatriya clan connected with Magadha. At the age of 30, he left his home in search of truth and attained 'kaivalya' at the age of 42 and conquested misery and happiness. Because of this conquest, he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or 'jina' and his followers are known as Jainas.
• In order to spread Jainism, Mahavira organized an order of his followers that admitted both men and women. It is said that his followers counted 14000. Hence, statement 1 is not correct.
• Jainism spread to Kalinga in the fourth century BC and in the second century BC it also seems to have reached Tamil Nadu. In the first century BC it enjoyed the patronage of King Kharvaela of Kalinga. In later centuries, Jainism spread to Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
• The early Jainas discarded Sanskrit and adopted the Prakrit language of the common people to preach its ideas. Many regional languages were developed out of Prakrit, particularly Sauraseni out of which grew the Marathi Language. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

• According to UNESCO, any language spoken by less than 10,000 people is potentially endangered. Since 1971, the Census of India has stopped counting languages spoken by less than 10,000 people.
• According to the Bhasa Research and Publication Centre, Vadodara, and Adivasi Academy, Gujarat, in the last 50 years, we have lost over 250 languages including Bo language in Andaman and the Majhi language in Sikkim. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
• Most of these dying languages are from the indigenous tribal groups spread across the country. A few of them would be the languages spoken by the nomadic people in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telangana, including Wadari, Kolhati, Golla, Gisari.
• In 2018, a report by UNESCO stated that 42 languages in India were heading towards extinction
  • The languages or dialects that were considered endangered, include 11 from Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Lamongse, Luro, Muot, Onge, Pu, Sanenyo, Sentilese, Shompen and Takahanyilang), seven from Manipur (Aimol, Aka, Koiren, Lamgang, Langrong, Purum and Tarao) and four from Himachal Pradesh (Baghati, Handuri, Pangvali and Sirmaudi), etc. Hence statement 1 is not correct and statement 3 is correct.

• Recent context: National Bank for Financing Infrastructure and Development (NaBFID) plans to roll out take-out financing to help commercial banks overcome asset-liability mismatches in infrastructure financing.
• Takeout financing, also known as permanent financing or long-term financing, is a form of funding used in the real estate industry. It refers to the process of securing a long-term loan or a mortgage to replace a short-term loan that was used to finance the development.
  • A takeout loan is a method of financing whereby a loan that is procured later is used to replace the initial loan.
  • More specifically, a takeout loan, or takeout financing, is long-term financing that the lender promises to provide at a particular date or when particular criteria for completion of a project are met.
• Takeout loans are commonly used in property development. A developer might secure a short-term loan to scrap an existing structure and pay a crew to build a new one. Once the new structure is in place or a significant portion of it is finished, the developer might secure longer term financing to pay off the original loan.

Hence option (b) is the correct answer.

• Imperial Capital-Vijayanagara
• The rayas and the nayakas
  • Among those who exercised power in the Vijayanagara Empire were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters. 
  • These chiefs often moved from one area to another, and in many cases were accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle.
  • These chiefs were known as nayakas and they usually spoke Telugu or Kannada.
  • The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is likely that many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. Hence statement 1 is correct.
  • The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders in the area. Hence statement 2 is correct.
  • They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
  • These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control. Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
  • The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.
  • However, during the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms. This hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.

• India is the second-largest producer of tea globally.
• Assam is the major tea producing state in India followed by West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. Almost 52% of the entire tea produced in India comes from the state of Assam with 652.9 million kilograms. Lakhimpur, Kamrup, Goalpara, Sivasagar, Cachar, Nagaon and Derang districts of the state are major producers of tea. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• The Tea Board of India is a state agency of the Government of India, established to promote the cultivation, processing, and domestic trade as well as export of tea from India.
  • The Board's Head Office is situated in Kolkata and there are two Zonal offices-one each in North Eastern Region at Jorhat in Assam and in Southern Region at Coonoor in Tamil Nadu. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
• Ministry of Commerce and Industry is the nodal ministry overlooking the Tea Board of India. As an apex body, it looks after the overall development of the tea industry.

• Mughal paintings used the style of miniature paintings that developed in the northern Indian subcontinent in the sixteenth century and continued till the mid–nineteenth century. It was responsible for the amalgamation of indigenous themes and styles along with Persian and later European themes and styles.
• It was during Humayun's exile in Shah Tahmasp’s court that he witnessed the magnificent artistic tradition of miniature paintings and manuscripts. With the assistance of Shah Tahmasp, Humayun established his court in Kabul in 1545. Humayun’s rule began a period of intense patronage for the art of painting and calligraphy.
  • He founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop), which was also a part of his library. Not much is known about the size and composition of Humayun’s workshop in India. However, it is known that he started the project of illustration of Hamza Nama that was continued by his son and successor Akbar. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
  • The Princes of the House of Timur (1545–50), is an extraordinary Mughal painting from the early period, probably by Safavid artist, Abd us Samad, is a masterpiece in itself by its size and complex structure and display of historical portraits. It has portraits that were painted over the original to register the portraits of successive members of the Mughal dynasty. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

• Under the Mauryan state, justice was administered through courts, which were established in all the major towns.
• Two types of courts are mentioned in the texts.
  • The 'dharmasthiya' courts mostly dealt with civil law relating to marriage, inheritance and other aspects of civil life. The courts were presided over by three judges well-versed in sacred laws and three amatyas (secretaries).
  • Kantakasodhana courts shall deal with measures to suppress disturbance to peace (kantakasodhanam kuryuh). According to the artha-shastra, these courts took cognizance of violations of the law by officials in the discharge of their official duties. Thus if traders used false weights or sold adulterated goods, or charged excessive prices, the Kantakasodhana courts intervened to punish the culprits.
  • Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
• The main purpose of these courts was to clear the society of anti-social elements and various types of crimes, and it functioned more like the modern police and relied on a network of spies for information about such antisocial activities. Punishments for crimes were usually quite severe. The overall objective of the judicial system, as it evolved, was to extend government control over most aspects of ordinary life.

• Recent context : The WHO recently declared aspartame as ‘possibly carcinogenic’. Hence statement 3 is correct.
• Aspartame is an artificial sweetener has been in use since the early 1980s. It is used in many foods and beverages because it is much sweeter than sugar, so much less of it can be used to give the same level of sweetness. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• The use of aspartame, often known by the brand name Equal, in food and beverage products has long been scrutinized. World Health Organization declared that aspartame could possibly cause cancer and encouraged people who consume a significant number of beverages with aspartame to switch to water or other unsweetened drinks.
• Most food and beverage companies use aspartame partly because aspartame is less expensive than other alternatives and is 200 times as sweet as sugar. Hence statement 2 is not correct.

• Recent context : National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) has cleared the sale of India’s first private hill station, Lavasa to Darwin Platform Infrastructure.
• Lavasa is located in the Mulshi valley in Western Ghats, near Pune. It was developed by Hindustan Construction Company which had envisaged the hill station as a European-style city.
• Varasgaon is a dam on the Mutha River that supplies water to city of Pune, Maharashtra, India. It is also called Veer Baaji Pasalkar Dam. this dam is situated close to Lavasa.

Hence option (c) is the correct answer.

Ancient India has been blessed with scholars who have provided record-breaking works that are relevant even today. In this regard, many scholars have developed excellence in their own niche fields. Scholars from such various fields include:

• Charaka: He was an ancient Indian physician and scholar. He is well known as the editor of the medical treatise Charaka Samhita, which contains details about diseases, cures, medicines, and more. Charak is thus also known as the father of Ayurveda. Charaka studied the anatomy of the human body and various organs. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
• Sushruta: He authored the Sushruta Samhita, a treatise on medicine and a foundational text of Ayurveda. Sushruta is also known as the father of surgery. He pioneered various operations and techniques in the field. For Sushruta, the concept of shalya tantra (surgical science) was allencompassing. Examples of some of his groundbreaking operations include rhinoplasty, lithotomy, etc.
• Aryabhatta: He is the earliest Indian mathematician whose work and history are available to modern scholars. He flourished under the Gupta dynasty, where he composed at least two works, Aryabhatiya (c. 499) and the now-lost Aryabhatasiddhanta. Aryabhatiya was written in verse couplets and deals with mathematics and astronomy. Following an introduction that contains astronomical tables, the work is divided into three sections: Ganita (“Mathematics”), Kala-kriya (“Time Calculations”), and Gola (“Sphere”). He is also known to have worked with π, right-angled triangles (similar to the Pythagorean theorem), algebraic topics, and various other modern concepts. Hence pair 2 is correctly matched.
• Bāṇabhaṭṭa: He was a 7th-century Sanskrit prose writer and poet from India. He was the Asthana Kavi in the court of the emperor Harsha, who reigned c. 606–647 CE in north India. His compositions include Harshacharitra and others. Hence, pair 3 is correctly matched.
• Varāhamihira: He was an astrologer-astronomer who lived in Ujjain, in present-day Madhya Pradesh, India. He authored the Pancha-siddhantika (“Five Treatises”), a compendium of Greek, Egyptian, Roman, and Indian astronomy. He wrote many treatises on shakuna (“augury”) as well as the Brihaj-jataka (“Great Birth”) and the Laghu-jataka (“Short Birth”). Hence pair 4 is not correctly matched.

• On the basis of the different types of tools and techniques, the stages of human development in the prehistoric period are described as the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age, the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age, and the Neolithic or New Stone Age.
• Tools of the Palaeolithic Period: The main tools of the lower Palaeolithic phase were handaxes, cleavers and choppers. These are called chopping tools. These were rough and heavy and were made by chipping the sides of the stones. Gradually, sharper and less heavy tools came to be made. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• Tools of the Mesolithic Period: The microliths used during the Mesolithic period were very small in size varying in lengths from 1 to 8 centimeters and were largely made out of chipped or flaked pieces. Some of these tools have geometric forms such as triangles, lunates and trapezes. Their tools could be tied or fixed in other objects to form an arrow or a spear. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• Tools of the Neolithic Period: The Neolithic tools consist of the ground tools having smooth surfaces, and well-rounded and symmetrical shapes. The grinding made the tools sharper, polished and more effective than those in the earlier period. The ground stone tools of the Neolithic period included different types of axes called ‘celt’. Besides the stone tools, the sites of this period have also yielded various types of bone objects such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, pendants, bangles and earrings. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

• The murals of Ajanta are among the greatest surviving paintings of any ancient civilization. The subject matter of these paintings is almost exclusively Buddhist, except for decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.
• The themes of the murals of the Ajanta Caves range from religious to secular like decorative designs that include a variety of animals, trees and flowers; portraits of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas; and narrative scenes portraying Jatka stories. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• There are flying apsaras in the cave No. X belonging to the late 6th century A.D. The rich ornamentation which was the characteristic of the period is beautifully portrayed in her turban decked with pearls and flowers. The backward movement of the necklace suggests the flight of the apsara which is painted in a masterly way. The later paintings at Ajanta by far the larger part of what survives were done between the mid-6th and 7th century A.D. They also illustrate the Jataka stories with greater details and ornamental designs. Hence, statement 1 is not correct.
• The representation of one of the memorable events of Buddha’s life after enlightenment which ranks among the best of the paintings at Ajanta, is in cave No.XVII. This represents Buddha’s visit to the door of Yashodhara’s abode in the city of Kapilavastu while she herself has come out with her son Rahula to meet the Great King. Hence, statement 3 is not correct.

• The sixth century BC was both a period of socio-economic and religious development and new political developments. In the later Vedic period, people started agriculture, which made them settle down at a particular place. These permanent settlements led to the foundation of janapadas or territorial states under the control of the king.
• In the sixth century BC, the main area of political activity gradually shifted from Western UP to Eastern UP and Bihar. This region was not only fertile on account of better rainfall and river systems but was also closer to iron production centers. The use of better iron tools and weapons enabled some territorial states to become very large and they came to be called Mahajanapadas. Most of them were situated north of Vindhyas, between Bihar in the east to the northwest frontier of the subcontinent.
  • Anga-It is situated in present-day Bihar and West Bengal.
  • Magadh- It was located in present-day Bihar close to Anga, divided by river Champa.
  • Vatsa- It is situated at the confluence of river Ganga and Yamuna, modern Allahabad.
  • Matsya- It is situated around present-day Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur area of Rajasthan.
• The below-given map shows the extent of Mahajanapadas:

• Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.

• Recent context: In a paper published recently, researchers at Microsoft announced that they had figured out a way to create an elusive kind of particle that could potentially revolutionize quantum computing.
• The claim pertains to particles called Majorana zero modes, whose unique properties could help build quantum computers that are much less fragile than they are today, making them computationally superior.
• All sub-atomic particles have four quantum numbers associated with them. No two particles in the same system can have the same four quantum numbers. The numbers are together like each particle’s ID.
• The characteristic feature of fermions is that one of these numbers, called the quantum spin, has only half -integer values, like 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc. This is why any particle, even something as large as an entire atom, can be a fermion: its total quantum spin needs to have a half-integer value.
  • This is also why two particles that are bound to each other in some way can be a fermion: again, their total quantum spin needs to have a half-integer value.
  • Most of the rules that apply to single fermions also apply to these pairs or bound states. When these bound states are their own antiparticles – i.e. if they meet, they annihilate each other – they are Majorana fermions.
  • Physicists call such bound states Majorana zero modes.
• One reason they’re of so much interest is that Majorana zero modes can be used to realise the more powerful topological quantum-computing. In fact, historically, the search for Majorana zero modes and advances in topological quantum computing have often overlapped.
• Hence option (a) is the correct answer.

• The grand temple at Rama Janmabhoomi in Ayodhya will be inaugurated soon.
• The beautiful temple has been built following the Nagara style of temple architecture. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• The superstructure of the temple will be carved out of Rajasthan Bansi Paharpur stone. These are rare pink marble stones, world-renowned for their beauty and strength. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• The chief architect of the temple is Mr. Chandrakant Sompura. His father, Prabhakar Sompura, was the architect of the Somnath Temple in Gujarat. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

• The Bahmani kingdom (1347-1526) reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan (1411 -1481). He was a Persian merchant. He came to India at the age of forty-two and joined the services of the Bahmani kingdom. Slowly he became the Prime Minister due to his personal qualities.
• He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which was built in the Persian style of architecture. He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa, and the sea pirates on the Arabian Sea. His conquests include Konkan, Goa, and Krishna-Godavari delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire through his conquests.
• His administrative reforms were also important. They were aimed to increase the control of the Sultan over the nobles and provinces. Royal officers were appointed in each province for this purpose.
• Most of the forts were under the control of these officers. Allowances were reduced for the nobles who shirked their responsibility. This was disliked by the nobles. So, the Deccani nobles organized a plot against Gawan. They induced the Sultan to punish him with the death sentence.
• So, he was persecuted and sentenced to death in 1481 by Muhammad Shah III. After the execution of Gawan, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline.

Hence option (a) is the correct answer.

• The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh. It is hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth. Vegetable dyes are used for colour in the Kalam Kari work.
• A small place Sri-Kalahasti is the best known centre of Kalamkari art. This work is also found at Masaulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with painted cloth panels, which was developed in the fifteenth century under the patronage of Vijaynagar rulers. This art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to serve as brush or pen. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the Masulipatnam kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs. The outlines and main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later done using the pen. Hence, statement 3 is correct.
• GI is a tag used on products with a specific geographical origin, and ones that possess a reputation due to that origin. While the owner of the GI tag has ‘exclusive rights’ over the product, and can even sue someone for trying to duplicate it
• In Tamil Nadu, the Karuppur kalamkari paintings have recently received the geographical indication (GI) tags. The paintings are intricately made on a cotton cloth using pens or brushes made out of bamboo tree and coconut tree stems. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

• Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.) was called by the Greeks as “ Amitrochates (in Greek) or Amitraghata (in Sanskrit)” meaning slayer of enemies. He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to Mysore.
• Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between the two seas’. The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south. Therefore, it can be said that the Mauryan Empire under Bindusara extended up to Mysore.

Hence option (d) is the correct answer.

• Agricultural surplus, the growth of crafts and trade, and the growing population led to the emergence of towns in the Gangetic plains known as Mahajanapadas. This is called the second urbanisation in Indian history after the first urbanisation evident in the Harappan Civilization. After the decline of the Harappan Towns urban centres now emerge again after a gap of more than a thousand years. Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
• However, this time towns developed in the middle Ganga basin and not in the Indus Plain. It is said that more than sixty towns and cities such as Pataliputra, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaishali, Champa, Kaushambi and Ujjaini developed between 600 and 300 BC. These cities became centres of craft production and trade and were inhabited by a large number of artisans and merchants. The goods produced by artisans like textiles, silk, jewellery, pottery etc, were carried by merchants to other towns.
• Different types of towns came into being:
  • Political and administrative centres such as Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi and Champa
  • Centres of trade and commerce such as Ujjain and Taxila
  • Holy centres such as Vaishali.

• An Imperial Capital-Vijayanagara
  • The first dynasty, known as the Sangama dynasty, exercised control till 1485. 
  • They were supplanted by the Saluvas, military commanders, who remained in power till 1503 when they were replaced by the Tuluvas. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. Hence statement 1 is correct and statement 2 is not correct.
  • His rule was characterized by expansion and consolidation. This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired (1512), the rulers of Orissa were subdued (1514) and severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur(1520).
  • He composed a work on statecraft in Telugu known as the Amuktamalyada.
  • He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his mother.
  • The strain began to show within the imperial structure following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529. His successors were troubled by rebellious nayakas or military chiefs.
  • By 1542 control at the center had shifted to another ruling lineage, that of the Aravidu, which remained in power till the end of the seventeenth century.
  • In 1565 Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle at Rakshasi -Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda. Hence statement 3 is not correct.

• Recent context : National Housing Bank (NHB) has operationalized the ₹10,000-crore Urban Infrastructure Development Fund (UIDF) announced in this year’s Budget for creation of urban infrastructure in tier-2 and tier-3 cities.
  • Urban Infrastructure Development Fund (UID) will be funded through Priority Sector Lending Shortfall and to be used by Public Agencies to create urban infrastructure in Tier 2 & Tier 3 cities.
• The initial corpus for this fund — managed by NHB— is ₹10,000 crore. UIDF has been launched to supplement efforts of the State governments by providing stable and predictable source of finance for creation of urban infrastructure in tier-2 and tier-3 cities.
• As many as 459 tier-2 cities with population of 50,000 to less than a lakh and 580 tier-3 cities with population of one lakh to less than a million as per 2011 census are being covered under UDIF as of now.
  • Thus, UDIF would focus on mid-sized cities with the potential to develop them into regional economic hubs, while keeping the metropolitan and metro cities outside its scope. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
• Interest rate on UIDF loans has been kept at bank rate minus 1.5 percent i.e., 5.25 percent at present.
  • The loan (principal) will be repayable in five equal annual instalments within seven years from the date of withdrawal, including a moratorium period of two years while interest will be payable on quarterly basis.
• The eligible loan amount for financing under UDIF will be based on the size of project and geographical location of the project. Hence statement. Hence statement 2 is correct.
• Eligible Projects
  • Water Supply & Sanitation
  • Solid Waste Management
  • Construction of roads (excluding maintenance works), Over bridges, grade separators, underpasses
  • Comprehensive Area Development Projects
  • Local Area Plan for de-congestion
  • Heritage Conservation
  • Town Planning Schemes for greenfield development
  • Parks with open Gym not involving major construction work, etc.
• Hence statement 3 is correct.
• Finance Department of States/ UTs have been designated as the nodal department for implementation of the fund while NHB is operationalising the fund through their regional offices spread across the country.

• The ‘Masahat system’ during the Delhi Sultanate rule was the procedure of measurement of land revenue. It was part of agrarian reforms introduced by Alauddin Khilji (r. 1296–1316). He introduced the system of land revenue based on the actual measurement of land.
• The magnitude of the state demand was set at half the produce of the land. The land was to be measured (masahat), and the land revenue was fixed on the yield of each unit of the area. The term used was wafa-i biswa (wafa = yield; biswa = 1/20th of a bigha). it was levied separately on the holding of each individual cultivator.
• The intermediaries and the peasants alike were to pay the same standard of the demand (50%) without any distinction, be they intermediaries or 'ordinary peasants' (balahar). Hence option (b) is the correct answer.

• Rajput Kingdoms in North India (10th—12th centuries);
• The middle of the 10th century saw the decay of two of the most powerful Rajput states which had dominated north and central India during the two preceding centuries.
• These were the Gurjar-Pratihar Empire with its capital at Kannauj with Banaras second capital., and the Rashtrakuta Empire with its capital at Manyakhet. Hence pair 3 is correctly matched.
• The Gujarat-Pratihar empire extended from the foothills of the Himalayas to Ujjain in the south, and from Gujarat in the west to Mongyr in the east. It contended with the Rashtrakutas for the mastery of Gujarat and Malwa, and with the Pala rulers of Bengal for the mastery of Bihar and modern east U.P. 
• In the north-west, its rule extended to Thaneshwar. It declined rapidly during the second half of the 10th century, remaining confined largely to modern U.P.
• In the meantime, a number of kingdoms rose up, the most prominent among them being the Chandels of Kalinjar and Mahoba, the Chauhans of Sakambhari in Rajasthan, the Paramars of Malwa, and the Chalukyas of Gujarat. Hence pairs 1 and 2 are correctly matched.

• The important non-Harappan chalcolithic cultures lay mainly in western India and Deccan. These include Banas culture (2600BC–1900 BC) in south-east Rajasthan, with Ahar near Udaipur and Gilund as its key sites; Kayatha culture (2100BC–2000 BC) with Kayatha in Chambal as its chief site in Madhya Pradesh; Malwa Culture (1700BC–1400BC) with Navdatoli in Western Madhya Pradesh as an important site, and Jorwe culture (1400BC– 700BC) with Inamgaon and Chandoli near Pune in Maharashtra as its chief centers.
• The non-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures though flourished in different regions they were marked by basic uniformity in various aspects such as their mud structures, farming and hunting activities, use of wheelmade pottery, etc. The pottery of these chalcolithic cultures included ochre-colored pottery (OCP), and black-and-red ware (BRW) and has been found in the shape of various kinds of bowls, basins, spouted jars with concave necks, dishes on stands, etc.
• To this culture belonged a large number of very small-sized stone tools known as microliths. Also, people knew the art of spinning and weaving because spindle whorls have been discovered in Malwa.
• The non-Harappan chalcolithic communities founded the first villages in India and cultivated far more cereals than is known in the case of neolithic communities. Despite this, the rate of infant mortality was very high. This general weakness of these communities is evident from the burial of a large number of children in western Maharashtra. Hence, option (c ) is the correct answer.

• Statement 1 is incorrect: Ibrahim Lodi met Babur at Panipat with a force estimated at 100,000 men and 1000 elephants. Babur had crossed the Indus with a force of 12,000, but this had been swelled by his army in India, and the large number of Hindustani nobles and soldiers who joined Babur in the Punjab. Even then, Babur's army was numerically inferior.
• Statement 2 is correct: Babur's effective use of field cannon and matchlockmen ensured the success of his much smaller force. Like several other rulers in India, the Lodi Sultan had failed to integrate firearms into his military machine and thus proved unable to meet the Mughal challenge. Ibrahim Lodi perished on the battlefield.
• Statement 3 correct: While the significance of the battle of Panipat cannot be underrated, it did not automatically ensure Babur's mastery of Hindustan. The Afghans remained entrenched in several parts of India, principally the east, and continued to offer stiff resistance. In addition, Babur also had to overpower the Rajputs who had been the main challengers of the Afghans till his advent on the Indian scene. Further south, was the Vijayanagar empire, the mightiest in India at the time. It is, however, indisputable that the victory at Panipat made Babur a serious contender for power in India.
• Statement 4 is correct: The battle of Panipat is regarded as one of the decisive battles of Indian history. It broke the back of Lodi's power and brought under Babur's control the entire area up to Delhi and Agra. The treasures stored up by Ibrahim Lodi at Agra relieved Babur from his financial difficulties.

Amogha-III is a third-generation fire-andforget Anti-Tank Guided Missile designed and developed by the in-house R&D Division of Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL). This indigenous missile has been developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
Range: 200 – 2500 m.
Features of Amogha-III:

• Attack mode: Top/direct attack.
• Man-portable.
• Tandem warhead with penetration in excess of 650 mm beyond Explosive Reactive Armor (ERA).
• Dual Mode Imaging Infra-Red (IIR) Seeker.
• Aerodynamic and Thrust Vector Control.
• Smokeless, Signature-free Propulsion System.
• Soft launch.

Value Addition:

1. India’s indigenous anti-tank guided missile (ATGM): Nag
2. Indigenously developed helicopterlaunched Anti-Tank Guided Missile: ‘HELINA’

The Battle of Khanwa in 1527 marked a significant turning point in the struggle for dominance in northern India. Rana Sanga, a powerful Rajput ruler, aimed to thwart Babur's growing influence in the region, but the battle ended in a decisive victory for Babur. Sanga was defeated, and his subsequent attempt to renew the conflict ended with his assassination. With Rana Sanga's demise, the dream of a united Rajasthan extending up to Agra suffered a significant setback, securing Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region and leading to further Mughal expansion in the area.

• Hallmarking is the accurate determination and official recording of the proportionate content of precious metal in precious metal articles. Hallmarks are thus official marks used in many countries as a guarantee of purity or fineness of precious metal articles. The principal objective of the Hallmarking Scheme is to protect the public against adulteration and to obligate manufacturers to maintain legal standards of fineness. In India, at present, two precious metals, namely gold and silver, have been brought under the purview of Hallmarking.
• BIS Hallmarking Scheme: It has been aligned with International criteria on hallmarking. As per this scheme, registration is granted to the jewellers by BIS under the Hallmarking Scheme. The BIS certified jewellers can get their jewellery hallmarked from any of the BIS recognized Assaying and Hallmarking Centres.

With the introduction of six-digit alphanumeric code from 1 July 2021, the four marks have now been replaced by three marks for gold jewellery/ artefacts as given below:

In this, 22K916 means that it is a 22 carat gold and the piece of jewellery has 91.6 percent gold.

• The Chalukyas or Solankis ruled over Gujarat for over three and a half centuries. During the reign of Bhima I (1022-1064), Mahmud Ghazni invaded Gujarat and ravaged the temple of Somnath.
• The Modhera is known for the Sun temple situated on the bank of the Pushpavati river. The temple was built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I.
• Somnath: Somnath, also called Patan-Somnath or Somnath-Patanan, ancient ruined city, in southwestern Gujarat state. It is the site of the temple of Shiva as Somanatha (“Lord of the Soma,” a sacred intoxicating drink, and, by extension, “Lord of the Moon”). The temple was sacked by the Turkic Muslim invader Maḥmūd of Ghazni in 1024–25 CE.