Test: Sustainable Management of Natural Resources - 4 - UPSC MCQ

Source of Air Pollution:
There are several sources of air pollution, including natural and human activities. The following are the sources of air pollution:
A. Ash from volcanoes:
- Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of ash and gases into the atmosphere.
- The ash, along with sulfur dioxide and other pollutants, can contribute to air pollution.
B. Burning of fossil fuels:
- The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is a major source of air pollution.
- Power plants, vehicles, and industrial processes that rely on fossil fuels emit pollutants like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.
C. Pollen grains floating in the air:
- While pollen grains are natural substances released by plants for reproduction, they can also contribute to air pollution.
- For individuals with allergies, pollen can trigger respiratory problems and cause discomfort.
D. All of these:
- All of the above-mentioned sources contribute to air pollution to varying degrees.
- Volcanic ash, burning of fossil fuels, and pollen grains all release pollutants into the air, leading to a decline in air quality.
In conclusion, air pollution can arise from various sources, including ash from volcanoes, burning of fossil fuels, and pollen grains floating in the air. These sources release pollutants that can have detrimental effects on human health and the environment. It is important to address and mitigate these sources to improve air quality and protect our well-being.

Oxygen was first produced somewhere around 2.7 billion to 2.8 billion years ago.
It was produced by tiny organisms known as Cyanobacteria, or blue - green algae.

The Process through which Oxygen was Added to the Atmosphere: Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process through which oxygen was added to the Earth's atmosphere. It is a vital biological process carried out by plants, algae, and some bacteria. Here is a detailed explanation of photosynthesis and how it contributes to the oxygen content in the atmosphere:
1. Photosynthesis:
- Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose (a form of sugar) and oxygen.
- It occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, specifically in the thylakoid membranes.
- The process can be divided into two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle).
2. Light-Dependent Reactions:
- These reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes and require sunlight.
- Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments, which convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.
- Water molecules are split through a process called photolysis, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
- The released oxygen diffuses out of the plant and into the atmosphere.
3. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle):
- These reactions occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts.
- ATP and NADPH generated in the light-dependent reactions are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
- This process does not directly release oxygen into the atmosphere, but it indirectly contributes to oxygen production by producing glucose, which can later be used in cellular respiration by plants and animals, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
4. Oxygen Production:
- The oxygen released during photosynthesis is a waste product for plants and algae but is crucial for sustaining life on Earth.
- Oxygen produced by photosynthesis accumulates in the atmosphere, increasing the overall oxygen content.
- It is estimated that photosynthetic organisms, particularly marine phytoplankton, are responsible for about 50-85% of the oxygen in the atmosphere.
In conclusion, photosynthesis is the process through which oxygen is added to the Earth's atmosphere. By converting sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen, photosynthetic organisms play a critical role in maintaining the oxygen levels necessary for supporting life on our planet.

Hug the trees movement:
The "Hug the trees movement" was a grass-root level effort that aimed to end the alienation of people from their forests. The movement sought to create awareness and promote the conservation of forests by emphasizing the importance of trees and their preservation. Here is a detailed explanation:
1. Grass-root level effort:
- The movement was initiated at the grassroots level, meaning it was driven by the local communities and individuals who were directly affected by deforestation and environmental degradation.
- It was a collective effort of people who recognized the need to protect and preserve forests for the well-being of both humans and the environment.
2. Ending alienation from forests:
- The movement aimed to address the growing disconnect between people and forests.
- It sought to reconnect individuals with nature and raise awareness about the significance of forests in terms of biodiversity, ecological balance, and the provision of ecosystem services.
3. Conservation and preservation:
- The movement encouraged the conservation and preservation of forests, highlighting the role of trees in improving the quality of soil and sources of water.
- Forests play a crucial role in maintaining soil fertility, preventing erosion, and acting as natural water catchment areas.
- By hugging the trees, people displayed their love and concern for these vital natural resources.
Therefore, the "Hug the trees movement" primarily aimed to end the alienation of people from their forests and promote the conservation and preservation of these valuable ecosystems.

Incorrect Statement: None of these (Option D)
Explanation:
The incorrect statement is "None of these" because all of the statements A, B, and C are correct.
- Statement A: Soil erosion is the consequence of environmental pollution. This is true as environmental pollution can lead to the degradation of soil, causing erosion.
- Statement B: Acid rain causes soil to become acidic, leading to a decrease in agricultural productivity. This is also true as acid rain contains sulfuric and nitric acids that can lower the pH of the soil, making it unsuitable for plant growth.
- Statement C: Sugarcane and rice crops are grown near the source of water. This is a common practice in agriculture as sugarcane and rice require a significant amount of water for growth and cultivation.
Therefore, option D, "None of these," is the incorrect statement as all the other options are true.

Nandan Kanan Biological Reserve is situated in Orissa.

Some key points about Nandan Kanan Biological Reserve:
- Location: The reserve is located in the state of Orissa, India.
- Importance: It is one of the most renowned biological parks in India and is known for its rich biodiversity.
- Flora and Fauna: The reserve is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna, including several endangered and rare species.
- Animal Species: Nandan Kanan Biological Reserve houses animals such as white tigers, Asiatic lions, Indian pangolins, and Indian crocodiles.
- Aviary: The reserve also has a large aviary that houses numerous bird species, including colorful parrots and peafowls.
- Botanical Garden: Apart from its wildlife, the reserve also houses a picturesque botanical garden with various species of plants and trees.
- Conservation Efforts: Nandan Kanan Biological Reserve plays a crucial role in conservation efforts, including captive breeding programs for endangered species.
- Visitor Attractions: The reserve offers various attractions for visitors, such as a safari, a reptile park, and a zoo.
- Education and Research: The reserve also serves as an educational and research center, promoting awareness about wildlife and conducting scientific studies.
In conclusion, Nandan Kanan Biological Reserve, situated in Orissa, is a significant wildlife reserve known for its diverse range of flora and fauna, conservation efforts, and visitor attractions.

Non-Biodegradable Materials:
Non-biodegradable materials are substances that cannot be broken down or decomposed by natural processes. They persist in the environment for a long time and can have harmful effects on ecosystems. Out of the options given, the non-biodegradable material is:
Option B: Aluminum foil
Explanation:
- Wool: Wool is a natural fiber that is biodegradable. It can decompose over time and return to the environment.
- Aluminum foil: Aluminum foil is a man-made material that is not biodegradable. It cannot be broken down by natural processes and can persist in the environment for hundreds of years.
- Human waste: Human waste, such as feces and urine, is biodegradable. It can decompose naturally, especially with the help of bacteria and other microorganisms.
- None of these: This option is incorrect as aluminum foil is a non-biodegradable material.
In conclusion, out of the given options, aluminum foil is the non-biodegradable material. It is important to properly dispose of non-biodegradable materials to minimize their negative impact on the environment.

Product Formed when CO combines with Haemoglobin

• Oxyhaemoglobin: When oxygen (O2) combines with haemoglobin (Hb), it forms oxyhaemoglobin. This is the normal and desired form of haemoglobin in the blood.


• Carbaminoglobin: When carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with haemoglobin, it forms carbaminoglobin. This process is known as carbamino formation. It occurs in the tissues where CO2 is produced as a waste product.


• Carboxyhaemoglobin: When carbon monoxide (CO) combines with haemoglobin, it forms carboxyhaemoglobin. Carbon monoxide has a higher affinity for haemoglobin than oxygen, which can lead to a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.


• All of These: The correct answer to the question is option C, which states that all of these products (oxyhaemoglobin, carbaminoglobin, and carboxyhaemoglobin) are formed when CO combines with haemoglobin.

Therefore, the product formed when CO combines with haemoglobin is carboxyhaemoglobin, along with oxyhaemoglobin and carbaminoglobin.

Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colourless, tasteless and an almost odorless crystalline chemical compound. 

The point source of water pollution is:
- Factories: Industrial facilities often release pollutants directly into nearby water bodies, such as rivers or lakes. These pollutants can include chemicals, heavy metals, and other harmful substances.
- Construction sites: During construction activities, sediment, debris, and chemicals can be washed into water bodies through stormwater runoff, leading to water pollution.
- Waterlogged areas: Areas with poor drainage or excessive water accumulation can contribute to water pollution. The stagnant water can become a breeding ground for bacteria and other contaminants.
- Runoff from fields: Agricultural activities, such as the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and irrigation practices, can result in runoff that carries pollutants into water bodies. This can cause water pollution and harm aquatic ecosystems.
Out of these options, factories are the most prominent point source of water pollution.

To prevent floods, afforestation is an effective measure that can be taken. Here is a detailed explanation:
Afforestation:
- Afforestation refers to the process of establishing a forest, or stand of trees, where there was no forest.
- Planting trees in appropriate areas can help prevent floods by providing several benefits.
- Trees help to intercept and absorb rainfall, reducing the amount of water that reaches the ground.
- The roots of trees bind the soil together, preventing erosion and reducing the risk of landslides.
- Forests act as natural sponges, absorbing excess water and releasing it slowly, thereby regulating the flow of water in rivers and streams.
- Forests also help to recharge groundwater, ensuring a steady supply of water during dry periods.
- The dense canopy of trees helps to reduce the intensity of rainfall, preventing it from directly hitting the ground and reducing the chances of surface runoff.
- Trees also act as windbreaks, reducing the force of strong winds and minimizing the risk of flooding caused by storm surges.
- Afforestation not only helps prevent floods but also provides several other environmental benefits such as carbon sequestration, habitat creation, and biodiversity conservation.
Other Measures:
While afforestation is a key measure to prevent floods, it is important to note that it should be complemented with other measures for effective flood control. Some additional measures include:
- Implementing proper land management practices, such as contour plowing and terracing, to prevent soil erosion and minimize surface runoff.
- Constructing and maintaining effective drainage systems to carry excess water away from vulnerable areas.
- Building and maintaining dams and reservoirs to store excess water during heavy rainfall and release it gradually.
- Developing flood forecasting and early warning systems to alert people and authorities in advance, allowing them to take necessary precautions.
- Implementing land-use planning and zoning regulations to prevent construction in flood-prone areas.
- Promoting public awareness and education about flood risks and safety measures to minimize the loss of life and property during floods.
In conclusion, while floods cannot be completely prevented, afforestation plays a crucial role in mitigating their impacts. By planting trees and restoring forests, we can reduce the risk of floods and create a more resilient environment.

Filariasis is a disease spread by mosquitoes.


The detailed solution for the spread of filariasis is as follows:
- Mosquitoes: Filariasis is primarily spread through the bite of infected mosquitoes. Mosquitoes act as vectors for the disease, carrying and transmitting the filarial parasites from one person to another. The most common mosquito species responsible for transmitting filariasis are the Anopheles, Aedes, and Culex mosquitoes.
- Filarial Parasites: The disease is caused by several species of parasites known as filarial worms. The two main types of worms responsible for filariasis are Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi. These parasites live and reproduce in the lymphatic system of infected individuals.
- Transmission: When an infected mosquito bites a person, it injects the filarial parasites into the bloodstream. The parasites then migrate to the lymphatic system and mature into adult worms. These adult worms can live for several years and produce millions of microscopic larvae called microfilariae.
- Life Cycle: The microfilariae circulate in the bloodstream and can be ingested by mosquitoes when they feed on an infected individual. Inside the mosquito, the microfilariae develop into infective larvae. When the infected mosquito bites another person, it transmits the infective larvae, continuing the life cycle of the filarial parasites.
- Symptoms and Complications: Filariasis can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, lymph node enlargement, swelling of the limbs (elephantiasis), and damage to the lymphatic system. In severe cases, it can lead to disability and social stigma.
- Prevention and Control: Preventing mosquito bites is crucial in preventing the spread of filariasis. Measures such as using bed nets, wearing protective clothing, and applying insect repellents can help reduce mosquito bites. Mass drug administration programs are also implemented in endemic areas to treat and prevent the disease.
In conclusion, filariasis is a disease spread by mosquitoes. Understanding the transmission and life cycle of the filarial parasites is essential in implementing effective prevention and control strategies to combat this disease.

As of May 2020, there were 105 national parks encompassing an area of 40,501.13 km² , under protected areas of India category || comprising 1.23% of India's total surface area. 

Reuse means using a product more than once, either for the same purpose (for example returnable glass milk bottles) or for a different purpose (such as old jam jars for food storage). Repairing products, selling them on or donating them to charity/community groups is also reusing!

It is preferable to recycling because the item does not need to be re-processed before it can be used again which saves both money and reduces the environmental impact.

Amrita Devi Bishnoi sacrificed her life for the protection of Khejri trees.
Amrita Devi Bishnoi was a brave environmentalist who gave her life to protect the Khejri trees in the 18th century. The incident took place in the Bishnoi community, which holds deep reverence for nature and wildlife.
Background:
- Amrita Devi Bishnoi belonged to the Bishnoi community, which is known for its strong belief in environmental conservation.
- The Bishnois follow the teachings of their founder, Guru Jambheshwar, who preached the importance of nature preservation.
The Sacrifice:
- In 1730, the then ruler of the region ordered the cutting of Khejri trees to build a new palace.
- Amrita Devi Bishnoi, along with her three daughters, refused to let the trees be cut down.
- She hugged one of the Khejri trees and proclaimed that she would sacrifice her life to protect them.
- The other villagers, inspired by her courage, also joined in and stood against the tree cutters.
The Aftermath:
- The tree cutters brutally killed Amrita Devi Bishnoi and her daughters.
- However, their sacrifice caught the attention of the authorities and the incident led to public outrage.
- The ruler was forced to revoke the order to cut down the Khejri trees, and the Bishnoi community's dedication to environmental conservation became widely recognized.
Legacy:
- The sacrifice of Amrita Devi Bishnoi and her daughters is celebrated as an act of bravery and devotion to nature.
- The incident played a significant role in raising awareness about the importance of tree conservation and inspired others to protect the environment.
- The Bishnoi community continues to promote environmental sustainability and is actively involved in tree plantation drives and wildlife conservation efforts.
Therefore, it is clear that Amrita Devi Bishnoi sacrificed her life for the protection of Khejri trees, making her a symbol of environmental activism and courage.

The Tendu leaves are obtained from Tendu tree (Diospyros melanoxylonRoxb.) The wide-scale use of Tendu leaves in Bidi industry is mainly based on their enormous production, agreeable flavour, flexibility, resistance to decay and capacity to retain fires. The broad morphological characters on which leaves, are selected and catagorised for Bidi making are size, thickness of leaves, texture, relative thickness of midrib and lateral veins.

Kuhls, a local system of canal irrigation was evolved in Himachal Pradesh.
Explanation:
The system of canal irrigation known as Kuhls was evolved in Himachal Pradesh. Here's a detailed explanation of Kuhls and its significance:
1. Kuhls: Kuhls are small canals constructed in the hills of Himachal Pradesh to divert water from streams and rivers to agricultural fields. They are an age-old traditional system of irrigation in the region.
2. Origin: The Kuhls system of irrigation has been practiced in Himachal Pradesh for centuries. It is believed to have originated during the reign of the princely states in the region.
3. Construction: Kuhls are built by diverting water from streams or rivers into small channels. These channels are carefully designed to ensure proper water flow to agricultural fields located at different elevations.
4. Community Effort: The construction and maintenance of Kuhls are carried out by the local communities residing in the region. The responsibility of managing the water distribution among different fields is also undertaken collectively.
5. Water Management: Kuhls play a crucial role in water management in the hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh. They help in providing a steady supply of water to the agricultural fields, especially during the dry seasons.
6. Sustainable Practice: The Kuhls system of irrigation is known for its sustainable practices. It promotes efficient water usage and minimizes wastage. It also helps in preserving the ecological balance of the region.
7. Cultural Heritage: Kuhls are not just a means of irrigation but also hold cultural significance in Himachal Pradesh. They are considered a part of the traditional heritage of the local communities and are celebrated during various festivals.
In conclusion, Kuhls, a local system of canal irrigation, was evolved in Himachal Pradesh. This age-old practice showcases the sustainable water management techniques adopted by the local communities in the hilly regions of the state.

Problem not associated with construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river Narmada:
- Answer: D - None of these
The Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river Narmada has been a subject of controversy and has faced several issues. However, one problem that is not directly associated with its construction is mentioned in option D. This means that all the other options (A, B, and C) are problems that are indeed associated with the construction of the dam. Let's discuss each of these problems in detail:
- Problem A: Swallowing up of huge amounts of public money without the generation of proportionate benefits
- The construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam has been criticized for the high costs involved and the alleged mismanagement of funds.
- Critics argue that the benefits generated by the dam, such as irrigation and electricity generation, do not justify the massive investment.
- Problem B: Environmental problem leading to deforestation
- The construction of the dam has resulted in the submergence of vast areas of land, including forests.
- This has led to deforestation and the loss of biodiversity, disrupting the natural ecosystem of the region.
- Problem C: Displacement of large number of peasants and tribals without adequate compensation or rehabilitation
- One of the major concerns associated with the Sardar Sarovar Dam is the displacement of people living in the affected areas.
- Many peasants and tribal communities have been uprooted from their homes without proper compensation or rehabilitation, leading to social and economic hardships.
In conclusion, while options A, B, and C represent problems associated with the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam, option D states that none of these problems are not associated with it. However, it is important to note that these problems have been raised by various stakeholders and continue to be debated.

Euro I and Euro II are norms for vehicle emissions.
Explanation:
Euro I and Euro II are specific standards or norms that regulate the emissions from vehicles. These norms were introduced in Europe to control and reduce the pollution caused by vehicle exhaust. Here is a detailed explanation:
- Euro I:
- Euro I is the first set of emission standards for vehicles, which were introduced in 1992.
- These standards set limits on the levels of pollutants, such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx), emitted by vehicles.
- Euro I aimed to reduce pollution caused by vehicles and improve air quality.
- Euro II:
- Euro II is the second set of emission standards for vehicles, which were introduced in 1996.
- These standards further tightened the limits on CO, HC, and NOx emissions compared to Euro I.
- Euro II aimed to further reduce pollution and improve the environmental performance of vehicles.
- Benefits of Euro I and Euro II:
- These emission norms have helped in reducing air pollution and improving air quality in Europe.
- They have encouraged the development and adoption of cleaner and more efficient vehicle technologies.
- The implementation of Euro I and Euro II has also prompted advancements in emission control systems and catalytic converters in vehicles.
In conclusion, Euro I and Euro II are norms specifically designed to regulate and control the emissions from vehicles. They have played a significant role in reducing pollution and improving the environmental performance of vehicles in Europe.

Chipko Andolan Origin
The Chipko Andolan, also known as the Chipko Movement, originated in a remote village called Reni in Garhwal in the Himalayas during the year 1973. This grassroots environmental movement was aimed at protecting the forests from deforestation and promoting ecological conservation. Here is a detailed explanation of the Chipko Andolan's origin:
Background:
- The Chipko Andolan was a response to the rampant deforestation and commercial logging activities that were threatening the survival of the local communities and their natural resources.
- The region of Garhwal in the Indian state of Uttarakhand was heavily dependent on forests for their livelihood, as they relied on them for firewood, fodder, and other essential resources.
Key Events:
- In 1973, a government contractor arrived in Reni village with a team of workers to fell trees in the nearby forest.
- Amrita Devi, a local woman, along with other women from the village, bravely stood in front of the trees, hugging them to prevent their cutting.
- The women's act of hugging the trees and forming a human chain to protect them gained widespread attention and sparked the Chipko Andolan.
Significance:
- The Chipko Andolan gained momentum as people realized the importance of preserving forests for sustainable development and the well-being of future generations.
- The movement advocated for community-based forest management and raised awareness about the adverse effects of deforestation on the environment, biodiversity, and local communities.
- Chipko Andolan inspired similar environmental movements in other parts of India and across the world, contributing to the development of the concept of ecological activism.
In conclusion, the Chipko Andolan originated in the year 1973 in the remote village of Reni in Garhwal. It was a grassroots movement that aimed to protect forests from deforestation and promote ecological conservation. The courageous act of hugging trees by the local women gained widespread attention and sparked a larger movement for environmental preservation.

Solar, energy, wind energy, geothermal energy are some of the non - exhaustible non - polluting sources of energy. These energy sources are environmental friendly. For example - wind energy can be captured through wind mills for irrigating fields as well as generating electricity power  . So, option ( b) is correct one.

Coliform is a group of bacteria found in the human intestines.
Explanation:
- Coliform is a group of bacteria that are commonly found in the digestive tracts of warm-blooded animals, including humans.
- These bacteria are often used as indicators of fecal contamination in water and food, as their presence indicates the possible presence of other harmful pathogens.
- The presence of coliform bacteria in water or food can be an indication of poor sanitation and hygiene practices.
- The bacteria are not typically harmful themselves, but their presence suggests the potential for contamination with other disease-causing microorganisms.
- Coliform bacteria can enter the environment through human and animal waste and can survive for an extended period in water, soil, and other environments.
- The most common species of coliform bacteria found in the human intestines is Escherichia coli (E. coli).
- The presence of coliform bacteria in water sources such as wells and rivers can be an indication of fecal contamination and the potential for waterborne diseases.
- Proper sanitation and hygiene practices, such as adequate sewage treatment and safe food handling, are essential to prevent the spread of coliform bacteria and other pathogens.

Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are areas that are exceptionally rich in biodiversity and are under threat from human activities. These areas are considered to be of high conservation priority due to their unique and diverse ecosystems. The following options are given and we need to identify the correct one:
A: Desert
Deserts are characterized by extreme aridity and have low biodiversity compared to other ecosystems. They are not considered as biodiversity hotspots.
B: Ocean
Oceans cover a vast area and support a wide variety of marine life. While they are important in terms of biodiversity, they are not specifically referred to as biodiversity hotspots.
C: Forest
Forests, especially tropical rainforests, are known for their exceptional biodiversity. They support a wide range of plant and animal species and are often referred to as biodiversity hotspots.
D: Lake
Lakes are bodies of water that can vary in size and depth. While they can support diverse aquatic ecosystems, they are not typically referred to as biodiversity hotspots.
Answer: C. Forest
In summary, the correct option is C: Forest. Forests, especially tropical rainforests, are considered as biodiversity hotspots due to their high species richness and unique ecosystems.

To determine the correctness of the given statements, let's analyze each statement individually.
Statement A: Nomadic shepherds drove their flock up from the valleys during the month of winter.
- This statement suggests that nomadic shepherds move their flock from the valleys during winter.
- It implies that nomadic shepherds have a practice of migrating with their flock.
- The statement does not provide any contradicting information.
Statement B: A K Banerjee was involved in the protection of sal forest.
- This statement suggests that A K Banerjee was actively involved in the conservation of sal forests.
- It does not provide any contradicting information.
Now let's analyze the given answer choices:
Answer A: Neither statement A nor statement B is true.
- This answer choice implies that both statements are false.
- However, based on our analysis, both statements are logically correct.
Answer B: Both the statement A and B are true.
- This answer choice correctly identifies that both statements are true.
- Nomadic shepherds driving their flock up from the valleys during winter is a common practice, and A K Banerjee's involvement in the protection of sal forest is mentioned as a fact.
Answer C: Statement B is true, A is false.
- This answer choice suggests that statement B is true, but statement A is false.
- However, our analysis shows that both statements are true.

Answer D: Statement A is true, B is false.
- This answer choice suggests that statement A is true, but statement B is false.
- However, our analysis shows that both statements are true.
Therefore, the correct answer is Answer B: Both the statement A and B are true.

Water Harvesting Structures in Kerala
- Surangams: Surangams are traditional tunnel wells that are commonly found in the hilly regions of Kerala. These wells are typically dug into the hillsides, allowing water to flow into them and be stored for later use.
- Bundhis: Bundhis are small earthen dams or embankments that are constructed across streams or rivers to create reservoirs for storing water. These structures help in the conservation of water and prevent it from flowing away.
- Nadis: Nadis are traditional irrigation canals that are used for the purpose of water harvesting in Kerala. These canals are designed to divert water from rivers or other water bodies and distribute it to agricultural fields and other areas.
- Kattas: Kattas are small check dams or weirs that are constructed across streams or rivers to impound water. These structures help in controlling the flow of water and allowing it to percolate into the ground, thereby recharging the groundwater table.
These water harvesting structures play a crucial role in mitigating water scarcity and ensuring sustainable water management in Kerala. They help in capturing and storing rainwater, which can then be used for various purposes such as irrigation, drinking water supply, and groundwater recharge. Additionally, these structures also help in preventing soil erosion and conserving water resources.