GPSC Prelims Paper 1 Mock Test - 10 - GPSC (Gujarat) MCQ

• Social Developments during the Gupta period:
  • Large-scale land grants to the brahmanas suggest that the brahmana supremacy increased in Gupta times. The Guptas, who probably were originally vaishyas, came to be looked upon as kshatriyas by the brahmanas. The brahmanas presented the Gupta kings as possessing god-like attributes.
  • All this helped to legitimize the position of the Gupta princes, who became great supporters of the brahmanical order. The brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of the numerous land grants made to them and therefore claimed many privileges, which are listed in the Narada Smriti, the lawbook of Narada, a work of about the fifth century.
  • The castes proliferated into numerous sub-castes as a result of two factors. A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into Indian society, and each group of foreigners was considered a kind of caste. As the foreigners largely came as conquerors they were given the status of kshatriya in society.
• The Hunas, who came to India towards the close of the fifth century, eventually came to be recognized as one of the thirty-six clans of the Rajputs. Even now some Rajputs bear the title Hun. The other reason for the increase in the number of castes was the absorption of many tribal people into brahmanical society through the process of land grants. Hence option (d) is the correct answer.
  • The position of shudras improved during this period. They were now permitted to listen to recitations of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas.
• The epics and the Puranas represented the kshatriya tradition, whose myths and legends won loyalty to the social order. The shudras could also worship a new god called Krishna and were also permitted to perform certain domestic rites which naturally meant fees for the priests. This can all be linked to some improvement in the economic status of the shudras.
• From the seventh century onwards, they were mainly represented as agriculturists; in the earlier period, they generally figured as servants, slaves, and agricultural labourers working for the three higher varnas. However, during this period, the number of untouchables increased, especially the chandalas. The chandalas entered the society as early as the fifth century BC.
  • In the Gupta period, like the shudras, women were also allowed to listen to the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas, and were advised to worship Krishna. However, women of the higher orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times. The fact that women of the two lower varnas were free to earn their livelihood, which gave them considerable freedom, but this was denied to women of the upper varnas.
• The first example of the immolation of a widow after the death of her husband occurred during the Gupta period during 510 AD but it was not rampant. However, some post-Gupta books held  that a woman could remarry if her husband was dead, destroyed, impotent, had become a renouncer or had been excommunicated.
• Widow remarriage was not allowed to members of the higher orders, but the shudras could practice widow remarriage.
   

The Ahoms

• The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the thirteenth century. Hence, statement 1 is incorrect.
• They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).
• The Ahom state depended upon forced labour.
• Those forced to work for the state were called paiks.
• A census of the population was taken. Each village had to send a number of paiks by rotation.

• The string puppets of Odisha are known as Kundhei. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
• The puppets are made of light wood, and have no legs but wear long flowing skirts. Hence statement 2 is correct.
• They have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate, and easy to manipulate. The puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are attached for manipulation.
• The costumes of Kundhei resemble those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre. The music is drawn from the popular tunes of the region and is sometimes influenced by the music of Odisha dance.

All the above statements are correct.

• The Paramaras
• They ruled the malwa region /central India Capital city – Dharanagar.
• The Paramaras of Malwa rose on the ruins of the Pratihara empire of Kanauj.
• The Paramara or Pawar clan was supposed to have emerged from the Agnikund of Mount Abu.
• RajaBhoj was the greatest in this dynasty (1018-1060).
• Apart from a great warrior, he was an accomplished scholar.
• He constructed Sanskrit college called Bhojshala at his capital.
• He was also a great builder and is believed to have built 104 temples and also a beautiful lake known as Bhojpur lake.

• The Gupta rulers gave patronage to Bhagvatism. But they were tolerant of other religions too. The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien and Hsuan Tsang, who came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II and Harsha respectively, clearly give the impression that Buddhism was also flourishing. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
• Harsha, though a Shaiva in his early life, became a follower of Buddhism and a great patron of the religion. He convened an assembly at Kanauj to publicize Mahayanaism. Nalanda developed as a great center of education for Mahayana Buddhism during his time. Students from outside countries also came to study at this university.
• According to Hsuan Tsang, the revenues of one hundred villages supported it. Bhagvatism centered on the worship of Vishnu and his incarnations. It emphasized bhakti (loving devotion) and ahimsa (non- killing of animals) rather than Vedic rituals and sacrifices. The new religion was quite liberal and assimilated the lower classes into its fold. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• According to Bhagavadgita, the chief text of Bhagvatism, whenever there was a social crisis Vishnu would appear in a human form and save the people. Thus ten incarnations of Vishnu were perceived. Puranas were written to popularize the virtues of each one of these incarnations. The idols of gods were housed in the temples constructed in the Gupta period.
• From the fifth century the Brahmanas had started receiving land in the tribal areas of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Central India, and Deccan. As a consequence, the tribal elements came to be assimilated into the Brahmanical society. The Brahmanas adopted their rituals, gods, and goddesses. It is this assimilation of Brahmanical religion and tribal practices that resulted in the development of Tantrism.
• It did not believe in any caste or gender bias and admitted both women and Shudras in its ranks. It emphasized ‘female’ as a source of power and energy. The Tantrik concepts affected, Shaivism and Vaishnavism as well as Buddhism and Jainism. It resulted in the introduction of the worship of female deities in these religions. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

The term Muvendar refers to a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.
Hence, option (d) is correct.
 

• The Lion Capital discovered more than a hundred years ago at Sarnath, near Varanasi, is generally referred to as Sarnath Lion Capital. This is one of the finest examples of sculpture from the Mauryan period.
• Built-in commemoration of the historical event of the first sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by the Buddha at Sarnath, the capital was built by Ashoka.
• The capital originally consisted of five component parts:
  • the shaft (which is broken in many parts now),
  • a lotus bell base,
  • a drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding clockwise,
  • the figures of four majestic addorsed lions, and
  • the crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large wheel, was also a part of this pillar. However, this wheel is lying in a broken condition and is displayed in the site museum at Sarnath.
• The capital without the crowning wheel, shaft, and the lotus base has been adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India.

Hence option (d) is the correct answer.
 

All the statements given above are correct

• Persian and European visitors to Vijayanagara provide vivid descriptions of life at the capital during the 15th and first half of the 16th centuries. Their accounts of the spectacular ceremonies of the nine-day Mahanavami festival to which the rulers invited them are particularly vivid. The foreigners also reported on the bazaars, temples and palaces of the city, some of which can still be identified.
• Their record of local historical traditions has proved invaluable in piecing together the chronology of the city and empire. Their reports on the precious stones, including diamonds, textiles and other luxury goods on sale in the markets testify to the role of the capital as one of the greatest emporia in South India. (Sewell gives translations of these travel accounts in, A Forgotten Empire and see, Fritz and Michell, Hampi, both listed in the Bibliography). Nicolo Conti, an Italian, was at Vijayanagara in about 1420, just after the accession of Devaraya I. The first known foreign traveller, he mentions the fortifications of the city and the thousands of men employed in the army of the rulers.
• The next visitor in about 1443 was Abdul Razzaq, an envoy of Shah Rukh, the Timurid sultan of Herat. Abdul Razzaq noticed seven rings of ramparts protecting the city, but not all these can be traced today. He also gives details about the ceremonies of the rulers, and the processions of the Mahanavami festival. Domingo Paes was at Vijayanagara in about 1520-22, during the reign of Krishnadevaraya.
• The visitor gives invaluable information on the walls, gates, streets and markets of the city, as well as the major temples of the city, including the Virupaksha at Hampi, together with its colonnaded bazaar. Paes describes the Mahanavami festival at some length, beginning with the preparations within the king’s palace where ceremonies were held at the House of Victory, all hung with precious cloths. According to Paes, the festival included numerous processions of animals, warriors and courtly women, as well as wrestling matches, fireworks and other entertainments.
• The climax was the review of the troops that was held at some distance outside the city. The description of the king’s palace with which Paes’s account concludes seems to apply to Krishnadevaraya’s new residence in what is now Hospet.
• Fernao Nuniz, a Portuguese horse-trader, composed his account around 1536-37. He was in the capital during the reign of Achyutaraya and may have been present at earlier battles fought by Krishnadevaraya. This visitor was particularly interested in the history of Vijayanagara, especially the foundation of the city, the subsequent careers of three dynasties of rulers, and the battles that they fought with the Deccan sultans and Orissan Rayas.
• Nunez, too, gives details of the Mahanavami festival, noting admiringly the extravagant jewels worn by the courtly women, as well as the thousands of women in the king’s service.

• The art of bronze-casting was practiced on a wide scale by the Harappans. Hence statement 1 is correct.
  • Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax technique.
  • In bronze, we find human as well as animal figures, the best example of the former being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back, and sweeping horns and the goat is of artistic merit.
  • Bronze casting was popular at all the major centers of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The copper dog and bird of Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan are in no way inferior to the human figures of copper and bronze from Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
• Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, mostly made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience, and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc.
  • The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial. It appears that the seals were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards.
  • The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, made from steatite. Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script that is yet to be deciphered. Hence statement 2 is correct.
  • Some seals have also been found in ivory.
• A large quantity of pottery excavated from the sites, enables us to understand the gradual evolution of various design motifs as employed in different shapes, and styles.
  • The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel-made wares, very few being hand-made.
  • Plain pottery is more common than painted ware. Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs.
  • The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip-on which geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black paint.
  • Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated with geometric patterns in red, black, and green, rarely white and yellow. Incised ware is also rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of the pans, always inside and to the dishes of offering stands. Hence statement 3 is not correct.
  • Perforated pottery includes a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the wall, and was probably used for straining beverages.
  • Pottery for household purposes is found in as many shapes and sizes as could be conceived of for daily practical use. Straight and angular shapes are an exception, while graceful curves are the rule.

Socio-Cultural life in Vijayanagara Kingdom.

• Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities.
• This helped them consolidate the strength and gain political representation and trade benefits. According to Talbot, terminology such as Setti was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while Boya identified herders of all types.
• According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in the military.
• Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime.

• The age of Mahajanpadas (sixth century B.C.) was characterized by the use of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). NBPW was a very glossy, shining type of pottery. The archaeological excavations at NBPW sites give a picture of contemporary material culture.
  • The NBPW phase saw the beginning of metallic money. Punched marked coins of silver were used in Trade & commerce. The use of burnt bricks and ring wells appeared in the middle of the NBP phase, i.e., in the third century B.C. Hence statement 1 is correct.
  • The NBPW phase marked the beginning of the second urbanization in India. The Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1800 B.C.) first saw the emergence of towns/cities in India. The Harappan towns finally disappeared in about 1500 B.C. After that, for about 1,000 years we did not find any towns in India. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
  • During this phase, the artisans and merchants were organized into guilds termed Nigama. Such organizations led to the specialization of art and craft activities. Hence statement 3 is correct.
  • In the social sphere, the NBPW phase was marked by the emergence of new social classes. This included merchants (Sethis), Gahapatis (rich peasants) and Karmakaras (wage labourers), etc.
     

• Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel or a consonant) as it has just too many signs - somewhere between 375 and 400.
• It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left, as if the engraver began working from the right and then ran out of space. The writings are found on seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods etc.

• The Samkhya School of Philosophy is perhaps the oldest of the six systems, being mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanisads. Kapila is described as the legendary founder of the school.
• Samkhya has a detailed ontology (a theory of being) and epistemology. It holds that the world we see around us really exists.
• Two fundamental categories in Samkhya thought are purusha (the spiritual principle) and prakriti (matter or nature). There are supposed to be many purushas, all of them eternal, unchanging, passive, and conscious witnesses.
• Prakriti, on the other hand, is eternal and unchanging, but also active and unconscious. It has three gunas or qualities—sattva (goodness), rajas (energy or passion), and tamas (darkness or inertia).
• According to early Samkhya philosophy the presence of divine agency is not essential to the creation of the world. The world owes its creation and evolution more to Nature or Prakriti than to God. This was a rational and scientific view. Around the fourth century A.D. in addition to Prakriti, Purusha or spirit was introduced as an element in its system, and the creation of the world was attributed to both. Hence statement 2 is correct.
• In the beginning, the Samkhya school of philosophy was materialistic. Then it tended to be spiritualistic. Hence statement 3 is correct.
• Liberation consists of the purusha realizing its distinction from prakriti. A person can attain
• salvation through the acquisition of real knowledge, and his misery can be ended forever. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• The Samkhya system also talks of other categories such as buddhi (will and the discriminating faculty), ahamkara (I-ness, the ego), and mind. Samkhya considers perception and reliable testimony as valid bases of knowledge and attaches a great deal of importance to inference.
   

Muhammad Shah II was succeeded by his son Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, the last Bahmani ruler to have real power.
The last Bahmani Sultans were puppet monarchs under their Barid Shahi Prime Ministers, who were de facto rulers. After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states: Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda (Hyderabad), Barid Shahi of Bidar, Imad Shahi of Berar, Adil Shahi of Bijapur. They are collectively known as the "Deccan Sultanates".

• Folk Dances of India:
  • Giddha is performed by women in Punjab. Hence pair 2 is correctly matched.
  • In the fishing communities of Maharashtra, men and women link arms and dance together and the women climb onto the men's shoulders to form pyramids. The women's Lavani dance from this area is notable for its unabashed sensuality. Hence pair 1 is not correctly matched.
  • There are also several forms of dance-drama or folk theatre, such as the Nautanki of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, the Bhavai of Gujarat, the irreverent Tamasha of Maharashtra, the Bengali Jatra, the spectacular Yakshagana of Karnataka and Theyyam of Kerala, all of which narrate legends of local heroes, kings, and deities. Hence pair 3 is correctly matched.

• In the early years of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, the Mongols under their leader Tarmashrin burst into Sind, and a force reached up to Meerut, about 65 km from Delhi. Muhammad Tughlaq not only defeated the Mongols in a battle near the Jhelum, but also occupied Kalanaur and for some time his power extended beyond the Indus up to Peshawar.
• In 1334, Ibn Battuta arrived in India all the way through the mountains of Afghanistan, during the time when the Tughlaq dynasty was at its height. In the memories of the Tughlaq dynasty, Ibn Batutta studied and wrote about the history of the famous Qutb complex, and also about Quwat al-Islam Mosque, and last but not least about the famous Qutb Minar.
• Muhammad Tughlaq launched a scheme to extend and improve cultivation in the doab. He set up a separate department called diwan-i-amir-i-kohi. The area was divided into development blocs headed by an official whose job was to extend cultivation by giving loans to the cultivators and to induce them to cultivate superior crops—wheat in place of barley, sugarcane in place of wheat, grapes and dates in place of sugarcane, etc.
• Hence option (d) is the correct answer.

• Statement 1 is correct: One of the greatest rulers of Kashmir was Zainul Abidin (1420–1470). He was an enlightened ruler and called back those Hindus who had left the state due to the persecution of Sikandar Shah. He abolished jizya and prohibited cow slaughter and gave the Hindus important state posts. A large number of temples were repaired and new ones constructed.
• Statement 2 is correct: He was a great scholar of Persian, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Arab languages and patronized the Sanskrit and Persian scholars. Under his patronage, Mahabharat and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini were translated into Persian and many Persian and Arabic works were translated into Hindi. He himself was a poet and wrote poetry under the pen name ‘Qutb’.
• The sultan developed agriculture by making large numbers of dams, canals and bridges. He was an enthusiastic builder, his greatest engineering achievement being Zaina Lanka—the artificial island in the Woolur Lake on which he built his palace and a mosque.

• Bhand Pather:
  • The traditional theatre form of Kashmir is a unique combination of dance, music, and acting. Satire, wit, and parody are preferred for inducing laughter. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
  • In this theatre form, music is provided with surnai, nagaara, and dhol. Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of living, ideals, and sensitivity is discernible.
• Maach:
  • It is the traditional theatre form of Madhya Pradesh. The term Maach is used for the stage itself as also for the play. In this theatre, form songs are given prominence in between the dialogues. Hence pair 2 is not correctly matched.
  • The term for dialogue in this form is bol and rhyme in narration is termed vanag. The tunes of this theatre form are known as rangat.
• Bhaona:
  • It is a presentation of the Ankia Naat of Assam. Hence pair 3 is not correctly matched.
  • In Bhaona cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen. The Sutradhaar or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or Assamese.
     

• The Indian stone age is divided into the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic on the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone tools, and subsistence base. The Palaeolithic age is further divided into the lower, middle, and upper Palaeolithic.
• Hunting and gathering were the subsistence basis of the Paleolithic age and man had no knowledge of cultivation. The cultivation of crops began during the Neolithic age. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• In 9000 BC began an intermediate stage in Stone-age culture, which is called the Mesolithic age. It intervened as a transitional phase between the Paleolithic and Neolithic age.
  • The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering initially but later on they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture. Hence statement 2 is not correct.

• From the early centuries of the Common Era, we find grants of land being made, many of which were recorded in inscriptions.
• Some of these inscriptions were on stone, but most were on copper plates which were probably given as a record of the transaction to those who received the land. The records that have survived are generally about grants to religious institutions or to Brahmanas.
• An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, who was usually exempted from paying land revenue and other dues to the king and was often given the right to collect these dues from the local people. Hence option (a) is the correct answer.
   

1. Pair 1 is correctly matched. The ruling class was called arasar. Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion. Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.

2. Pair 2 is incorrectly matched. Ploughmen were called uzhavar.

3. Pair 3 is incorrectly matched. Slaves were called adimai.

It is likely that these differences were based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies. In such a situation, questions of control over land must have become crucial, as these were often discussed in legal texts.

Important administrative reforms introduced by Mohammad-bin Tughlaq were:

• Heavy taxation in the Doab: In the beginning of his reign, the Sultan increased the rate of taxes in the Doab—a very fertile area located between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers.

• Introduction of token currency: Muhammad Tughlaq issued token currency because there was a shortage of gold coins.

• Transfer of the Capital: The plan of the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri which was renamed as Daultabad misfired.

The eighth edition of this bilateral military exercise began on 21 November 2022 in Karawang, Indonesia.

This joint exercise will facilitate both armies to know each other better, and share their wide experiences and combat experience on countering terrorist operations, Regional Security Operations & Peace Keeping Operations in an international environment.

Therefore, option A is correct.

Statement 2 is correct. Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century. In its heyday it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the dextreme south of the peninsula.

Statement 3 is correct. No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of fortification walls. The stone blocks were wedge shaped, which held them in place and the inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.

The monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti. The duty of the muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas. In exchange they collected the revenues of their assignments as salary. They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.

Statement 2 is correct. The Iqta system was introduced in India by Sultan Iltutmish. It was initially transferable but was made hereditary during the reign of Firuz Tughlaq.

Statement 2 is correct. While the number of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis. In fact, whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups – for instance, people living in forests such as the nishadas – or wanted to assign a name to occupational categories such as the goldsmith or suvarnakara, which did not easily fit into the fourfold varna system, they classified them as a jati. Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organized into shrenis or guilds.

• In 2019 the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) launched the Complaint Management System (CMS) in order to improve the customer experience in the grievance redressal process of banking services. Hence, statement 1 is correct.

• The Scheme defines ‘deficiency in service’ as the ground for filing a complaint, with a specified list of exclusions. Therefore, the complaints would no longer be rejected simply on account of “not covered under the grounds listed in the scheme”. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

• The scheme is jurisdiction neutral and a centralised receipt and processing centre has been set up in Chandigarh for the initial handling of complaints in any language. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places associated with the Buddha’s life –

Pair 1 is correctly matched. He was born - Lumbini

Pair 2 is incorrectly matched. He attained enlightenment - Bodh Gaya

Pair 3 is correctly matched. He gave his first sermon - Sarnath

Pair 4 is incorrectly matched. He attained nirvana - Kusinagara

Gradually, each of these places came to be regarded as sacred. We know that about 200 years after the time of the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark the fact that he had visited the place.

• Option a is correct. Brahmanas considered some people as being outside the Varna system and they also developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories as “untouchable”. This rested on a notion that certain activities, especially those connected with the performance of rituals, were sacred and by extension “pure”. Those who considered themselves pure avoided taking food from those they designated as “untouchable”.

• Option b is incorrect. Shudras were part of the Varna System and were given the occupation of servitude to all the other three Varnas viz. – the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. However, some activities were regarded by the Brahmanas as particularly “polluting”. These included handling corpses and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks, designated as Chandalas, were placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy. Their touch and in some cases even seeing them was regarded as polluting by those who claimed to be at the top of the social order.

• Option c is correct. The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of the chandalas such as, they had to live outside the village, use discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron. They could not walk about in villages and cities at night. They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as executioners.

• Option d is correct. Chinese Pilgrim Xuan Zang (c. seventh century) observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city.

Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat. Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds. The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish.

Statement 2 is correct.

Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and

pig. Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zooarchaeologists indicate that these animals were domesticated.

Statement 3 is correct.

Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known to the Harappans, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).

Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.

Other than plough and use of bull, it is also understood that Harappans used irrigation as well. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind. It is possible that ancient canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.