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NCERT Textbook - अणुगति सिद्धांत | सामान्य विज्ञानं (General Science) for UPSC CSE in Hindi PDF Download

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 Page 1


vè;k;     13
v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.1 Hkwfedk
ckW;y us 1661 esa ,d fu;e dh [kkst dh] ftls muosQ uke ls tkuk tkrk
gSA ckW;y] U;wVu ,oa vU; dbZ oSKkfudksa us xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dks ;g ekudj
le>kus dh ps"Vk dh fd xSlsa vR;ar lw{e ijek.oh; d.kksa ls cuh gSaA
okLrfod ijek.kq fl¼kar rks blosQ 150 ls Hkh vf/d o"kZ ckn gh LFkkfir
gks ik;kA v.kqxfr fl¼kar bl /kj.kk osQ vk/kj ij xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dh O;k[;k
djrk gS fd xSlksa esa vR;ar rhoz xfr ls xfreku ijek.kq vFkok v.kq gksrs gSaA
;g laHko Hkh gS] D;ksafd Bkslksa rFkk nzoksa osQ ijek.kqvksa osQ chp varjkijek.kqd
cy] tks fd y?kq ijklh cy gS] ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gS tcfd xSlksa
esa bl cy dks mis{k.kh; ekuk tk ldrk gSA v.kqxfr fl¼kar] 19oha 'krkCnh
esa] eSDlosy] cksYV~”keku vkSj vU; oSKkfudksa }kjk fodflr fd;k x;k FkkA ;g
vlk/kj.k :i ls liQy fl¼kar jgk gSA ;g nkc ,oa rki dh ,d vkf.od
O;k[;k izLrqr djrk gS rFkk vkoksxknzks dh ifjdYiuk vkSj xSl fu;eksa osQ
vuq:i gSA ;g cgqr lh xSlksa dh fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk dh Bhd&Bhd O;k[;k
djrk gSA ;g ';kurk] pkydrk] folj.k tSls xSlksa osQ ekiuh; xq.kksa dks
vkf.od izkpyksa ls tksM+rk gS vkSj v.kqvksa dh vkekiksa ,oa nzO;ekuksa dk
vkdyu laHko cukrk gSA bl vè;k; esa v.kqxfr fl¼kar dk vkjafHkd Kku
fn;k x;k gSA
13.2  nzO; dh vkf.od izo`Qfr
chloha 'krkCnh osQ egku oSKkfudksa esa ,d fjpMZ iQhuesu] bl [kkst dks fd
^nzO; ijek.kqvksa ls cuk gS* vR;ar egRoiw.kZ ekurs gSaA ;fn ge foosd ls dke
ugha ysaxs] rks (ukfHkdh; foèoal osQ dkj.k) ekuork dk fouk'k gks ldrk gS]
;k fiQj og (i;kZoj.kh; foinkvksa osQ dkj.k) foyqIr gks ldrh gSA ;fn oSlk
gksrk gS vkSj laiw.kZ oSKkfud Kku osQ u"V gksus dh fLFkfr mRiUu gks tkrh gS
rks iQhuesu fo'o dh vxyh ih<+h osQ izkf.k;ksa dks ijek.kq ifjdYiuk laizsf"kr
djuk pkgsaxsA ijek.kq ifjdYiuk % lHkh oLrq,¡ ijek.kqvksa ls cuh gSa] tks vuojr
13.1 Hkwfedk
13.2 nzO; dh vkf.od izÑfr
13.3 xSlksa dk O;ogkj
13.4 vkn'kZ xSlksa dk v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.5 ÅtkZ osQ lefoHkktu dk fu;e
13.6 fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk
13.7 ekè; eqDr iFk
lkjka'k
fopkj.kh; fo"k;
vH;kl
vfrfjDr vH;kl
Page 2


vè;k;     13
v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.1 Hkwfedk
ckW;y us 1661 esa ,d fu;e dh [kkst dh] ftls muosQ uke ls tkuk tkrk
gSA ckW;y] U;wVu ,oa vU; dbZ oSKkfudksa us xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dks ;g ekudj
le>kus dh ps"Vk dh fd xSlsa vR;ar lw{e ijek.oh; d.kksa ls cuh gSaA
okLrfod ijek.kq fl¼kar rks blosQ 150 ls Hkh vf/d o"kZ ckn gh LFkkfir
gks ik;kA v.kqxfr fl¼kar bl /kj.kk osQ vk/kj ij xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dh O;k[;k
djrk gS fd xSlksa esa vR;ar rhoz xfr ls xfreku ijek.kq vFkok v.kq gksrs gSaA
;g laHko Hkh gS] D;ksafd Bkslksa rFkk nzoksa osQ ijek.kqvksa osQ chp varjkijek.kqd
cy] tks fd y?kq ijklh cy gS] ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gS tcfd xSlksa
esa bl cy dks mis{k.kh; ekuk tk ldrk gSA v.kqxfr fl¼kar] 19oha 'krkCnh
esa] eSDlosy] cksYV~”keku vkSj vU; oSKkfudksa }kjk fodflr fd;k x;k FkkA ;g
vlk/kj.k :i ls liQy fl¼kar jgk gSA ;g nkc ,oa rki dh ,d vkf.od
O;k[;k izLrqr djrk gS rFkk vkoksxknzks dh ifjdYiuk vkSj xSl fu;eksa osQ
vuq:i gSA ;g cgqr lh xSlksa dh fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk dh Bhd&Bhd O;k[;k
djrk gSA ;g ';kurk] pkydrk] folj.k tSls xSlksa osQ ekiuh; xq.kksa dks
vkf.od izkpyksa ls tksM+rk gS vkSj v.kqvksa dh vkekiksa ,oa nzO;ekuksa dk
vkdyu laHko cukrk gSA bl vè;k; esa v.kqxfr fl¼kar dk vkjafHkd Kku
fn;k x;k gSA
13.2  nzO; dh vkf.od izo`Qfr
chloha 'krkCnh osQ egku oSKkfudksa esa ,d fjpMZ iQhuesu] bl [kkst dks fd
^nzO; ijek.kqvksa ls cuk gS* vR;ar egRoiw.kZ ekurs gSaA ;fn ge foosd ls dke
ugha ysaxs] rks (ukfHkdh; foèoal osQ dkj.k) ekuork dk fouk'k gks ldrk gS]
;k fiQj og (i;kZoj.kh; foinkvksa osQ dkj.k) foyqIr gks ldrh gSA ;fn oSlk
gksrk gS vkSj laiw.kZ oSKkfud Kku osQ u"V gksus dh fLFkfr mRiUu gks tkrh gS
rks iQhuesu fo'o dh vxyh ih<+h osQ izkf.k;ksa dks ijek.kq ifjdYiuk laizsf"kr
djuk pkgsaxsA ijek.kq ifjdYiuk % lHkh oLrq,¡ ijek.kqvksa ls cuh gSa] tks vuojr
13.1 Hkwfedk
13.2 nzO; dh vkf.od izÑfr
13.3 xSlksa dk O;ogkj
13.4 vkn'kZ xSlksa dk v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.5 ÅtkZ osQ lefoHkktu dk fu;e
13.6 fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk
13.7 ekè; eqDr iFk
lkjka'k
fopkj.kh; fo"k;
vH;kl
vfrfjDr vH;kl
xfreku vR;ar lw{e d.k gSa] chp eas vYi nwjh gksus ij ;s ,d
nwljs dks vkd£"kr djrs gSa ij ,d nwljs esa fu"ihfMr fd,
tkus ij izfrd£"kr djus yxrs gSaA
;g fparu fd nzO; lrr ugha gks ldrk] dbZ LFkkuksa vkSj
laLo`Qfr;ksa esa fo|eku FkkA Hkkjr esa d.kkn vkSj ;wuku esa
MseksfØVl us ;g lq>ko fn;k Fkk fd nzO; vfoHkkT; vo;oksa
dk cuk gks ldrk gSSA izk;% oSKkfud vkf.od fl¼kar dh
[kkst dk Js; MkYVu dks nsrs gSaA rRoksa osQ la;kstu }kjk ;kSfxd
cuus dh izfØ;k esa ikyu fd, tkus okys fuf'pr vuqikr
vkSj cgqxq.kd vuqikr osQ fu;eksa dh O;k[;k djus osQ fy,
MkYVu us ;g fl¼kar izLrkfor fd;k FkkA igyk fu;e crkrk
gS fd fdlh ;kSfxd esa vo;oksa osQ nzO;ekuksa dk vuqikr
fu;r jgrk gSA nwljs fu;e dk dFku gS fd tc nks rRo
feydj nks ;k vf/d ;kSfxd cukrs gSa rks ,d rRo osQ
fuf'pr nzO;eku ls la;ksftr gksus okys nwljs rRo osQ nzO;ekuksa
esa ,d ljy iw.kk±dh; vuqikr gksrk gSA
bu fu;eksa dh O;k[;k djus osQ fy,] yxHkx 200 o"kZ
iwoZ MkYVu us lq>k;k fd fdlh rRo osQ lw{ere vo;o
ijek.kq gSaA ,d rRo osQ lHkh ijek.kq loZle gksrs gSa ij ;s
nwljs rRoksa osQ ijek.kqvksa ls fHkUu gksrs gSaA vYi la[;k esa rRoksa
osQ ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ ;kSfxd dk v.kq cukrs gSaA 19oha
'krkCnh osQ vkjaHk esa fn, x, xS&yqlSd osQ fu;e osQ vuqlkj%
tc xSlsa jklk;fud :i ls la;kstu djosQ dksbZ vU; xSl
cukrh gSa] rks muosQ vk;ru y?kq iw.kk±dksa osQ vuqikr esa gksrs gSaA
vkoksxknzks dk fu;e (;k ifjdYiuk) crkrk gS fd leku rki
vkSj nkc ij xSlksa osQ leku vk;ruksa esa v.kqvksa dh la[;k
leku gksrh gSA vkoksxknzks fu;e dks MkYVu osQ fl¼kar ls
tksM+us ij xS&yqlSd osQ fu;e dh O;k[;k dh tk ldrh gSA
D;ksafd] rRo izk;% v.kqvksa osQ :i esa gksrs gSa] MkYVu osQ
ijek.kq fl¼kar dks nzO; dk vkf.od fl¼kar Hkh dgk tk
ldrk gSA bl fl¼kar dks vc oSKkfudksa }kjk ekU;rk gSA
rFkkfi] mUuhloha 'krkCnh osQ var rd Hkh ,sls dbZ izfl¼
oSKkfud Fks tks ijek.kq fl¼kar esa fo'okl ugha djrs FksA
vk/qfud dky esa] cgqr ls izs{k.kksa ls] vc ge ;g tkurs
izkphu Hkkjr ,oa ;wuku esa ijek.oh; ifjdYiuk
;|fi] vk/qfud foKku ls ijek.oh; n`f"Vdks.k dk ifjp; djkus dk Js; tkWu MkYVu dks fn;k tkrk gS] rFkkfi] izkphu
Hkkjr vkSj ;wuku osQ fo}kuksa us cgqr igys gh ijek.kqvksa vkSj v.kqvksa osQ vfLrRo dk vuqeku yxk fy;k FkkA Hkkjr esa
oS'ksf"kd n'kZu] ftlosQ iz.ksrk d.kkn Fks (NBh 'krkCnh bZ-iw-)] eas ijek.oh; izk:i dk foLr`r fodkl gqvk A mUgksaus
ijek.kqvksa dks vfoHkkT;] lw{e rFkk nzO; dk vfoHkkT; va'k ekuk A ;g Hkh roZQ fn;k x;k fd ;fn nzO; dks foHkkftr
djus osQ Øe dk dksbZ vUr u gks rks fdlh ljlksa osQ nkus rFkk es# ioZr esa dksbZ varj ugha jgsxk A pkj izdkj osQ ijek.kqvksa
(laLo`Qr esa lw{ere d.k dks ijek.kq dgrs gSa) dh dYiuk dh xbZ ftudh viuh vfHkyk{kf.kd lagfr rFkk vU;
fo'ks"krk,¡ Fkha tks bl izdkj gSa % Hkwfe (i`Foh)] vi~ (ty)] rst (vfXu) rFkk ok;q (gok) A mUgksaus vkdk'k (varfj{k)
dks lrr~ rFkk vfØ; ekuk vkSj ;g crk;k fd bldh dksbZ ijek.oh; lajpuk ugha gS A ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ fofHkUu
v.kqvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa (tSls nks ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ ,d f}ijek.kqd v.kq ^}S.kqd*] rhu ijek.kqvksa osQ la;ksx ls
^=kljs.kq* vFkok f=kijek.kqd v.kq cukrs gSa)] buosQ xq.k la?kVd v.kqvksa dh izo`Qfr ,oa vuqikr ij fuHkZj djrs gSa A vuqekuksa
}kjk vFkok mu fof/;ksa }kjk tks gesa Kkr ugha gSa] mUgksaus ijek.kqvksa osQ vkdkj dk vkdyu Hkh fd;k A bu vkdyuksa
esa fofo/rk gS A yfyr foLrkj & cq¼ dh ,d izfl¼ thouh ftls eq[; :i ls bZlk iwoZ f}rh; 'krkCnh esa fy[kk x;k]
esa ijek.kq dk vkdkj 10
-10 
m dh dksfV dk crk;k x;k gS A ;g vkdyu ijek.kq osQ vkdkj osQ vk/qfud vkdyuksa osQ
fudV gS A
iqjkru xzhl esa] MseksfØVl (prqFkZ 'krkCnh bZ-iw-) dks mudh ijek.oh; ifjdYiuk osQ fy, loZJs"B ekuk tkrk gSA
xzhd Hkk"kk esa 'Atom' 'kCn dk vFkZ gS ^vfoHkkT;* A muosQ vuqlkj ijek.kq ,d nwljs ls HkkSfrd :i esa] vko`Qfr esa]
vkdkj esa rFkk vU; xq.kksa esa fHkUu gksrs gSa rFkk blh osQ ifj.kkeLo:i muosQ la;ksx }kjk fufeZr inkFkks± osQ fHkUu&fHkUu
xq.k gksrs gSaA muosQ fopkjksa osQ vuqlkj ty osQ v.kq fpdus rFkk xksy gksrs gSa rFkk os ,d nwljs osQ lkFk tqM+us ;ksX; ugha
gksrs] ;gh dkj.k gS fd ty vklkuh ls izokfgr gksus yxrk gSA Hkwfe osQ ijek.kq [kqjnjs rFkk dk¡Vsnkj gksrs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k os
,d nwljs dks tdM+s jgrs gSa rFkk dBksj inkFkZ fufeZr djrs gSa A muosQ fopkj ls vfXu osQ ijek.kq d¡Vhys gksrs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k
os ihM+knk;d tyu mRiUu djrs gSaA ;s /kj.kk,¡ fpÙkkd"kZd gksrs gq, Hkh] vkSj vkxs fodflr u gks ldhaA bldk dnkfpr ;g
dkj.k gks ldrk gS fd ;s fopkj mu nk'kZfudksa dh varnZ'khZ dYiuk,a ,oa vuqeku ek=k Fks] ftudk u rks ijh{k.k fd;k
x;k Fkk vkSj u gh ek=kkRed iz;ksxksa (tks fd vk/qfud foKku dk izek.k&fpÉ gSa) }kjk la'kks/u A
v.kqxfr fl¼kar 329
Page 3


vè;k;     13
v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.1 Hkwfedk
ckW;y us 1661 esa ,d fu;e dh [kkst dh] ftls muosQ uke ls tkuk tkrk
gSA ckW;y] U;wVu ,oa vU; dbZ oSKkfudksa us xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dks ;g ekudj
le>kus dh ps"Vk dh fd xSlsa vR;ar lw{e ijek.oh; d.kksa ls cuh gSaA
okLrfod ijek.kq fl¼kar rks blosQ 150 ls Hkh vf/d o"kZ ckn gh LFkkfir
gks ik;kA v.kqxfr fl¼kar bl /kj.kk osQ vk/kj ij xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dh O;k[;k
djrk gS fd xSlksa esa vR;ar rhoz xfr ls xfreku ijek.kq vFkok v.kq gksrs gSaA
;g laHko Hkh gS] D;ksafd Bkslksa rFkk nzoksa osQ ijek.kqvksa osQ chp varjkijek.kqd
cy] tks fd y?kq ijklh cy gS] ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gS tcfd xSlksa
esa bl cy dks mis{k.kh; ekuk tk ldrk gSA v.kqxfr fl¼kar] 19oha 'krkCnh
esa] eSDlosy] cksYV~”keku vkSj vU; oSKkfudksa }kjk fodflr fd;k x;k FkkA ;g
vlk/kj.k :i ls liQy fl¼kar jgk gSA ;g nkc ,oa rki dh ,d vkf.od
O;k[;k izLrqr djrk gS rFkk vkoksxknzks dh ifjdYiuk vkSj xSl fu;eksa osQ
vuq:i gSA ;g cgqr lh xSlksa dh fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk dh Bhd&Bhd O;k[;k
djrk gSA ;g ';kurk] pkydrk] folj.k tSls xSlksa osQ ekiuh; xq.kksa dks
vkf.od izkpyksa ls tksM+rk gS vkSj v.kqvksa dh vkekiksa ,oa nzO;ekuksa dk
vkdyu laHko cukrk gSA bl vè;k; esa v.kqxfr fl¼kar dk vkjafHkd Kku
fn;k x;k gSA
13.2  nzO; dh vkf.od izo`Qfr
chloha 'krkCnh osQ egku oSKkfudksa esa ,d fjpMZ iQhuesu] bl [kkst dks fd
^nzO; ijek.kqvksa ls cuk gS* vR;ar egRoiw.kZ ekurs gSaA ;fn ge foosd ls dke
ugha ysaxs] rks (ukfHkdh; foèoal osQ dkj.k) ekuork dk fouk'k gks ldrk gS]
;k fiQj og (i;kZoj.kh; foinkvksa osQ dkj.k) foyqIr gks ldrh gSA ;fn oSlk
gksrk gS vkSj laiw.kZ oSKkfud Kku osQ u"V gksus dh fLFkfr mRiUu gks tkrh gS
rks iQhuesu fo'o dh vxyh ih<+h osQ izkf.k;ksa dks ijek.kq ifjdYiuk laizsf"kr
djuk pkgsaxsA ijek.kq ifjdYiuk % lHkh oLrq,¡ ijek.kqvksa ls cuh gSa] tks vuojr
13.1 Hkwfedk
13.2 nzO; dh vkf.od izÑfr
13.3 xSlksa dk O;ogkj
13.4 vkn'kZ xSlksa dk v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.5 ÅtkZ osQ lefoHkktu dk fu;e
13.6 fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk
13.7 ekè; eqDr iFk
lkjka'k
fopkj.kh; fo"k;
vH;kl
vfrfjDr vH;kl
xfreku vR;ar lw{e d.k gSa] chp eas vYi nwjh gksus ij ;s ,d
nwljs dks vkd£"kr djrs gSa ij ,d nwljs esa fu"ihfMr fd,
tkus ij izfrd£"kr djus yxrs gSaA
;g fparu fd nzO; lrr ugha gks ldrk] dbZ LFkkuksa vkSj
laLo`Qfr;ksa esa fo|eku FkkA Hkkjr esa d.kkn vkSj ;wuku esa
MseksfØVl us ;g lq>ko fn;k Fkk fd nzO; vfoHkkT; vo;oksa
dk cuk gks ldrk gSSA izk;% oSKkfud vkf.od fl¼kar dh
[kkst dk Js; MkYVu dks nsrs gSaA rRoksa osQ la;kstu }kjk ;kSfxd
cuus dh izfØ;k esa ikyu fd, tkus okys fuf'pr vuqikr
vkSj cgqxq.kd vuqikr osQ fu;eksa dh O;k[;k djus osQ fy,
MkYVu us ;g fl¼kar izLrkfor fd;k FkkA igyk fu;e crkrk
gS fd fdlh ;kSfxd esa vo;oksa osQ nzO;ekuksa dk vuqikr
fu;r jgrk gSA nwljs fu;e dk dFku gS fd tc nks rRo
feydj nks ;k vf/d ;kSfxd cukrs gSa rks ,d rRo osQ
fuf'pr nzO;eku ls la;ksftr gksus okys nwljs rRo osQ nzO;ekuksa
esa ,d ljy iw.kk±dh; vuqikr gksrk gSA
bu fu;eksa dh O;k[;k djus osQ fy,] yxHkx 200 o"kZ
iwoZ MkYVu us lq>k;k fd fdlh rRo osQ lw{ere vo;o
ijek.kq gSaA ,d rRo osQ lHkh ijek.kq loZle gksrs gSa ij ;s
nwljs rRoksa osQ ijek.kqvksa ls fHkUu gksrs gSaA vYi la[;k esa rRoksa
osQ ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ ;kSfxd dk v.kq cukrs gSaA 19oha
'krkCnh osQ vkjaHk esa fn, x, xS&yqlSd osQ fu;e osQ vuqlkj%
tc xSlsa jklk;fud :i ls la;kstu djosQ dksbZ vU; xSl
cukrh gSa] rks muosQ vk;ru y?kq iw.kk±dksa osQ vuqikr esa gksrs gSaA
vkoksxknzks dk fu;e (;k ifjdYiuk) crkrk gS fd leku rki
vkSj nkc ij xSlksa osQ leku vk;ruksa esa v.kqvksa dh la[;k
leku gksrh gSA vkoksxknzks fu;e dks MkYVu osQ fl¼kar ls
tksM+us ij xS&yqlSd osQ fu;e dh O;k[;k dh tk ldrh gSA
D;ksafd] rRo izk;% v.kqvksa osQ :i esa gksrs gSa] MkYVu osQ
ijek.kq fl¼kar dks nzO; dk vkf.od fl¼kar Hkh dgk tk
ldrk gSA bl fl¼kar dks vc oSKkfudksa }kjk ekU;rk gSA
rFkkfi] mUuhloha 'krkCnh osQ var rd Hkh ,sls dbZ izfl¼
oSKkfud Fks tks ijek.kq fl¼kar esa fo'okl ugha djrs FksA
vk/qfud dky esa] cgqr ls izs{k.kksa ls] vc ge ;g tkurs
izkphu Hkkjr ,oa ;wuku esa ijek.oh; ifjdYiuk
;|fi] vk/qfud foKku ls ijek.oh; n`f"Vdks.k dk ifjp; djkus dk Js; tkWu MkYVu dks fn;k tkrk gS] rFkkfi] izkphu
Hkkjr vkSj ;wuku osQ fo}kuksa us cgqr igys gh ijek.kqvksa vkSj v.kqvksa osQ vfLrRo dk vuqeku yxk fy;k FkkA Hkkjr esa
oS'ksf"kd n'kZu] ftlosQ iz.ksrk d.kkn Fks (NBh 'krkCnh bZ-iw-)] eas ijek.oh; izk:i dk foLr`r fodkl gqvk A mUgksaus
ijek.kqvksa dks vfoHkkT;] lw{e rFkk nzO; dk vfoHkkT; va'k ekuk A ;g Hkh roZQ fn;k x;k fd ;fn nzO; dks foHkkftr
djus osQ Øe dk dksbZ vUr u gks rks fdlh ljlksa osQ nkus rFkk es# ioZr esa dksbZ varj ugha jgsxk A pkj izdkj osQ ijek.kqvksa
(laLo`Qr esa lw{ere d.k dks ijek.kq dgrs gSa) dh dYiuk dh xbZ ftudh viuh vfHkyk{kf.kd lagfr rFkk vU;
fo'ks"krk,¡ Fkha tks bl izdkj gSa % Hkwfe (i`Foh)] vi~ (ty)] rst (vfXu) rFkk ok;q (gok) A mUgksaus vkdk'k (varfj{k)
dks lrr~ rFkk vfØ; ekuk vkSj ;g crk;k fd bldh dksbZ ijek.oh; lajpuk ugha gS A ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ fofHkUu
v.kqvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa (tSls nks ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ ,d f}ijek.kqd v.kq ^}S.kqd*] rhu ijek.kqvksa osQ la;ksx ls
^=kljs.kq* vFkok f=kijek.kqd v.kq cukrs gSa)] buosQ xq.k la?kVd v.kqvksa dh izo`Qfr ,oa vuqikr ij fuHkZj djrs gSa A vuqekuksa
}kjk vFkok mu fof/;ksa }kjk tks gesa Kkr ugha gSa] mUgksaus ijek.kqvksa osQ vkdkj dk vkdyu Hkh fd;k A bu vkdyuksa
esa fofo/rk gS A yfyr foLrkj & cq¼ dh ,d izfl¼ thouh ftls eq[; :i ls bZlk iwoZ f}rh; 'krkCnh esa fy[kk x;k]
esa ijek.kq dk vkdkj 10
-10 
m dh dksfV dk crk;k x;k gS A ;g vkdyu ijek.kq osQ vkdkj osQ vk/qfud vkdyuksa osQ
fudV gS A
iqjkru xzhl esa] MseksfØVl (prqFkZ 'krkCnh bZ-iw-) dks mudh ijek.oh; ifjdYiuk osQ fy, loZJs"B ekuk tkrk gSA
xzhd Hkk"kk esa 'Atom' 'kCn dk vFkZ gS ^vfoHkkT;* A muosQ vuqlkj ijek.kq ,d nwljs ls HkkSfrd :i esa] vko`Qfr esa]
vkdkj esa rFkk vU; xq.kksa esa fHkUu gksrs gSa rFkk blh osQ ifj.kkeLo:i muosQ la;ksx }kjk fufeZr inkFkks± osQ fHkUu&fHkUu
xq.k gksrs gSaA muosQ fopkjksa osQ vuqlkj ty osQ v.kq fpdus rFkk xksy gksrs gSa rFkk os ,d nwljs osQ lkFk tqM+us ;ksX; ugha
gksrs] ;gh dkj.k gS fd ty vklkuh ls izokfgr gksus yxrk gSA Hkwfe osQ ijek.kq [kqjnjs rFkk dk¡Vsnkj gksrs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k os
,d nwljs dks tdM+s jgrs gSa rFkk dBksj inkFkZ fufeZr djrs gSa A muosQ fopkj ls vfXu osQ ijek.kq d¡Vhys gksrs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k
os ihM+knk;d tyu mRiUu djrs gSaA ;s /kj.kk,¡ fpÙkkd"kZd gksrs gq, Hkh] vkSj vkxs fodflr u gks ldhaA bldk dnkfpr ;g
dkj.k gks ldrk gS fd ;s fopkj mu nk'kZfudksa dh varnZ'khZ dYiuk,a ,oa vuqeku ek=k Fks] ftudk u rks ijh{k.k fd;k
x;k Fkk vkSj u gh ek=kkRed iz;ksxksa (tks fd vk/qfud foKku dk izek.k&fpÉ gSa) }kjk la'kks/u A
v.kqxfr fl¼kar 329 330 HkkSfrdh
gSa fd inkFkZ v.kqvksa (,d ;k vf/d ijek.kqvksa ls cus) ls
feydj cuk gksrk gSA bysDVªkWu lw{en'khZ ,oa Øeoh{k.k
lqjaxd lw{en'khZ dh lgk;rk ls vc ge mudks ns[k ldrs
gSaA ijek.kq dk vkeki yxHkx ,d ,saXLVªkWe (1Å) (10
–10
m)  gSA
Bkslksa esa] tgk¡ d.k dldj ,d nwljs ls tqM+s gSa] ijek.kqvksa osQ
chp oqQN ,saXLVªkWe (2 Å) dh nwjh gSA nzoksa esa Hkh ijek.kqvksa osQ
chp bruh gh nwjh gSA nzoksa eas ijek.kq ,d nwljs osQ lkFk mruh
n`<+rk ls ugha c¡/s gksrs ftrus Bkslksa esa] vkSj] blfy, b/j&
m/j xfr dj ldrs gSaA blhfy,] nzoksa esa izokg gksrk gSA xSlksa
esa varjijek.kqd nwjh nlksa ,aXLVªkWe esa gksrh gSA og vkSlr nwjh
tks dksbZ v.kq fcuk la?kêð fd, py ldrk gS mldh vkSlr
eqDr iFk dgykrh gSA xSlksa esa vkSlr eqDr iFk gtkjksa ,aXLVªkWe
dh dksfV dk gksrk gSA vr% xSlksa esa ijek.kq vR;f/d Lora=k
gksrs gSa vkSj cM+h&cM+h nwfj;ksa rd fcuk la?kêð fd, tk ldrs
gSaA ;fn can djosQ u j[kk tk,] rks xSlsa folfjr gks tkrh gSaA
Bkslksa vkSj nzoksa esa ikl&ikl gksus osQ dkj.k ijek.kqvksa osQ chp
osQ varj ijek.kqd cy egRoiw.kZ gks tkrs gSaA ;s cy vf/d
nwfj;ksa ij vkd"kZ.k vkSj vYi nwjh ij izfrd"kZ.k cy gksrs gSaA
tc ijek.kq ,d nwljs ls oqQN ,aXLVªkWe dh nwjh ij gksrs gSa rks
os ,d nwljs dks vkd£"kr djrs gSa ij cgqr ikl yk, tkus ij
izfrd£"kr djus yxrs gSaA xSl dk LFkSfrd fn[kkbZ iM+uk
Hkzked gSA xSl lfØ;rk ls Hkjiwj gS vkSj budk larqyu xfrd
larqyu gSA xfrd larqyu esa v.kq ,d nwljs ls la?kV ð djrs gSa
vkSj la?kVð dh vof/ eas mudh pkyksa esa ifjorZu gksrk gSA
osQoy vkSlr xq.k fu;r jgrs gSaA
ijek.kq fl¼kar gekjh [kkstksa dk var ugha gS cfYd ;g
rks bldk ,d vkjaHk gSA vc ge tkurs gSa fd ijek.kq
vfoHkkT; ;k ewy d.k ugha gSaA muesa ,d ukfHkd vkSj
bysDVªkWu gksrs gSaA ukfHkd Lo;a izksVkWuksa vkSj U;wVªkWuksa ls cus gksrs
gSaA ;gh ugha izksVkWu rFkk U;wVªkWu Dokdks±  ls feydj cus gksrs
gSaA gks ldrk gS fd DokoZQ Hkh bl dgkuh dk var u gksaA ;g
Hkh gks ldrk gS fd fLVªax (rarq) tSlh dksbZ izkFkfed lÙkk gksA
izo`Qfr gekjs fy, lnSo gh foy{k.k Hkjh gS] ij] lR; dh
[kkst vkuannk;d gksrh gS vkSj gj vkfo"dkj esa viuk lkSan;Z
gksrk gSA bl vè;k; esa ge viuk vè;;u xSlksa osQ (vkSj FkksM+k
cgqr Bkslksa osQ) O;ogkj rd gh lhfer j[ksaxsA blosQ fy, ge
mUgsa vuojr xfr djrs xfreku d.kksa dk lewg ekusaxsA
13.3   xSlksa dk O;ogkj
Bkslksa ,oa nzoksa dh rqyuk esa xSlksa osQ xq.kksa dks le>uk vklku
gSA ;g eq[;r% bl dkj.k gksrk gS] D;ksafd] xSl esa v.kq ,d
nwljs ls nwj&nwj gksrs gSa vkSj nks v.kqvksa osQ la?kêð dh fLFkfr
dks NksM+dj muosQ chp ikjLifjd vU;ksU; fØ;k,¡ mis{k.kh;
gksrh gSa tSls fuEu nkc o muosQ nzfor (;k ?kuhHkwr) gksus osQ rkiksa
dh vis{kk vR;f/d mPp rki ij vius rki] nkc vkSj vk;ru
esa yxHkx fuEufyf[kr laca/ n'kkZrh gSa (nsf[k, vè;k; 11)
PV = KT (13.1)
;g laca/ xSl osQ fn, x, uewus osQ fy, gSA ;gk¡ T  osQfYou
(;k ije) iSekus ij rki gS]  K  fn, x, uewus osQ fy,
fu;rkad gS ijarq vk;ru osQ lkFk ifjo£rr gksrk gS ;fn vc
ge ijek.kq ;k v.kq dh /kj.kk ykxw djsa rks]  K  fn, x, uewus
esa v.kqvksa dh la[;k N  osQ vuqØekuqikrh gSA ge fy[k ldrs
gSa] K = N kA iz;ksx gesa crkrs gSa fd k dk eku lHkh xSlksa osQ
fy, leku gSA bldks cksYV~leku fu;rkad dgk tkrk gS vkSj
k
B  
}kjk fu£n"V fd;k tkrk gSA
tkWu MkYVu (1766-1844)
og ,d vaxzst jlk;uK FksA tc vyx&vyx rjg osQ ijek.kq la;ksftr gksrs gSa rks
os oqQN ljy fu;eksa dk ikyu djrs gSaA MkYVu dk ijek.kq fl¼kar bu fu;eksa dh
ljy O;k[;k djrk gSA MkYVu esa o.kk±/rk laca/h ,d fl¼kar
Hkh izLrqr fd;kA
,esfn;ks vkoksxknzks (1776 – 1856)
mUgksaus ,d vR;ar cqf¼eÙkkiw.kZ vuqeku yxk;k fd leku rki
vkSj nkc ij lHkh xSlksa osQ leku vk;ruksa esa v.kqvksa dh
la[;k leku gksrh gSA blls xSlksa dh la;kstu izfØ;k dks ,d
ljy <ax ls le>us esa lgk;rk feyhA ;g dFku vc vkoksxknzks dh ifjdYiuk
(;k fu;e) dgykrk gSA mUgksaus ;g Hkh izLrkfor fd;k fd gkbMªkstu] vkWDlhtu]
ukbVªkstu tSlh xSlksa osQ lw{ere la?kVd d.k ijek.kq ugha cfYd f}ijek.kqd v.kq gSaA
tkWu MkYVu
(1766-1844)
,esfn;ks vkoksxknzks
(1776-1856)
Page 4


vè;k;     13
v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.1 Hkwfedk
ckW;y us 1661 esa ,d fu;e dh [kkst dh] ftls muosQ uke ls tkuk tkrk
gSA ckW;y] U;wVu ,oa vU; dbZ oSKkfudksa us xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dks ;g ekudj
le>kus dh ps"Vk dh fd xSlsa vR;ar lw{e ijek.oh; d.kksa ls cuh gSaA
okLrfod ijek.kq fl¼kar rks blosQ 150 ls Hkh vf/d o"kZ ckn gh LFkkfir
gks ik;kA v.kqxfr fl¼kar bl /kj.kk osQ vk/kj ij xSlksa osQ O;ogkj dh O;k[;k
djrk gS fd xSlksa esa vR;ar rhoz xfr ls xfreku ijek.kq vFkok v.kq gksrs gSaA
;g laHko Hkh gS] D;ksafd Bkslksa rFkk nzoksa osQ ijek.kqvksa osQ chp varjkijek.kqd
cy] tks fd y?kq ijklh cy gS] ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gS tcfd xSlksa
esa bl cy dks mis{k.kh; ekuk tk ldrk gSA v.kqxfr fl¼kar] 19oha 'krkCnh
esa] eSDlosy] cksYV~”keku vkSj vU; oSKkfudksa }kjk fodflr fd;k x;k FkkA ;g
vlk/kj.k :i ls liQy fl¼kar jgk gSA ;g nkc ,oa rki dh ,d vkf.od
O;k[;k izLrqr djrk gS rFkk vkoksxknzks dh ifjdYiuk vkSj xSl fu;eksa osQ
vuq:i gSA ;g cgqr lh xSlksa dh fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk dh Bhd&Bhd O;k[;k
djrk gSA ;g ';kurk] pkydrk] folj.k tSls xSlksa osQ ekiuh; xq.kksa dks
vkf.od izkpyksa ls tksM+rk gS vkSj v.kqvksa dh vkekiksa ,oa nzO;ekuksa dk
vkdyu laHko cukrk gSA bl vè;k; esa v.kqxfr fl¼kar dk vkjafHkd Kku
fn;k x;k gSA
13.2  nzO; dh vkf.od izo`Qfr
chloha 'krkCnh osQ egku oSKkfudksa esa ,d fjpMZ iQhuesu] bl [kkst dks fd
^nzO; ijek.kqvksa ls cuk gS* vR;ar egRoiw.kZ ekurs gSaA ;fn ge foosd ls dke
ugha ysaxs] rks (ukfHkdh; foèoal osQ dkj.k) ekuork dk fouk'k gks ldrk gS]
;k fiQj og (i;kZoj.kh; foinkvksa osQ dkj.k) foyqIr gks ldrh gSA ;fn oSlk
gksrk gS vkSj laiw.kZ oSKkfud Kku osQ u"V gksus dh fLFkfr mRiUu gks tkrh gS
rks iQhuesu fo'o dh vxyh ih<+h osQ izkf.k;ksa dks ijek.kq ifjdYiuk laizsf"kr
djuk pkgsaxsA ijek.kq ifjdYiuk % lHkh oLrq,¡ ijek.kqvksa ls cuh gSa] tks vuojr
13.1 Hkwfedk
13.2 nzO; dh vkf.od izÑfr
13.3 xSlksa dk O;ogkj
13.4 vkn'kZ xSlksa dk v.kqxfr fl¼kar
13.5 ÅtkZ osQ lefoHkktu dk fu;e
13.6 fof'k"V Å"ek /kfjrk
13.7 ekè; eqDr iFk
lkjka'k
fopkj.kh; fo"k;
vH;kl
vfrfjDr vH;kl
xfreku vR;ar lw{e d.k gSa] chp eas vYi nwjh gksus ij ;s ,d
nwljs dks vkd£"kr djrs gSa ij ,d nwljs esa fu"ihfMr fd,
tkus ij izfrd£"kr djus yxrs gSaA
;g fparu fd nzO; lrr ugha gks ldrk] dbZ LFkkuksa vkSj
laLo`Qfr;ksa esa fo|eku FkkA Hkkjr esa d.kkn vkSj ;wuku esa
MseksfØVl us ;g lq>ko fn;k Fkk fd nzO; vfoHkkT; vo;oksa
dk cuk gks ldrk gSSA izk;% oSKkfud vkf.od fl¼kar dh
[kkst dk Js; MkYVu dks nsrs gSaA rRoksa osQ la;kstu }kjk ;kSfxd
cuus dh izfØ;k esa ikyu fd, tkus okys fuf'pr vuqikr
vkSj cgqxq.kd vuqikr osQ fu;eksa dh O;k[;k djus osQ fy,
MkYVu us ;g fl¼kar izLrkfor fd;k FkkA igyk fu;e crkrk
gS fd fdlh ;kSfxd esa vo;oksa osQ nzO;ekuksa dk vuqikr
fu;r jgrk gSA nwljs fu;e dk dFku gS fd tc nks rRo
feydj nks ;k vf/d ;kSfxd cukrs gSa rks ,d rRo osQ
fuf'pr nzO;eku ls la;ksftr gksus okys nwljs rRo osQ nzO;ekuksa
esa ,d ljy iw.kk±dh; vuqikr gksrk gSA
bu fu;eksa dh O;k[;k djus osQ fy,] yxHkx 200 o"kZ
iwoZ MkYVu us lq>k;k fd fdlh rRo osQ lw{ere vo;o
ijek.kq gSaA ,d rRo osQ lHkh ijek.kq loZle gksrs gSa ij ;s
nwljs rRoksa osQ ijek.kqvksa ls fHkUu gksrs gSaA vYi la[;k esa rRoksa
osQ ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ ;kSfxd dk v.kq cukrs gSaA 19oha
'krkCnh osQ vkjaHk esa fn, x, xS&yqlSd osQ fu;e osQ vuqlkj%
tc xSlsa jklk;fud :i ls la;kstu djosQ dksbZ vU; xSl
cukrh gSa] rks muosQ vk;ru y?kq iw.kk±dksa osQ vuqikr esa gksrs gSaA
vkoksxknzks dk fu;e (;k ifjdYiuk) crkrk gS fd leku rki
vkSj nkc ij xSlksa osQ leku vk;ruksa esa v.kqvksa dh la[;k
leku gksrh gSA vkoksxknzks fu;e dks MkYVu osQ fl¼kar ls
tksM+us ij xS&yqlSd osQ fu;e dh O;k[;k dh tk ldrh gSA
D;ksafd] rRo izk;% v.kqvksa osQ :i esa gksrs gSa] MkYVu osQ
ijek.kq fl¼kar dks nzO; dk vkf.od fl¼kar Hkh dgk tk
ldrk gSA bl fl¼kar dks vc oSKkfudksa }kjk ekU;rk gSA
rFkkfi] mUuhloha 'krkCnh osQ var rd Hkh ,sls dbZ izfl¼
oSKkfud Fks tks ijek.kq fl¼kar esa fo'okl ugha djrs FksA
vk/qfud dky esa] cgqr ls izs{k.kksa ls] vc ge ;g tkurs
izkphu Hkkjr ,oa ;wuku esa ijek.oh; ifjdYiuk
;|fi] vk/qfud foKku ls ijek.oh; n`f"Vdks.k dk ifjp; djkus dk Js; tkWu MkYVu dks fn;k tkrk gS] rFkkfi] izkphu
Hkkjr vkSj ;wuku osQ fo}kuksa us cgqr igys gh ijek.kqvksa vkSj v.kqvksa osQ vfLrRo dk vuqeku yxk fy;k FkkA Hkkjr esa
oS'ksf"kd n'kZu] ftlosQ iz.ksrk d.kkn Fks (NBh 'krkCnh bZ-iw-)] eas ijek.oh; izk:i dk foLr`r fodkl gqvk A mUgksaus
ijek.kqvksa dks vfoHkkT;] lw{e rFkk nzO; dk vfoHkkT; va'k ekuk A ;g Hkh roZQ fn;k x;k fd ;fn nzO; dks foHkkftr
djus osQ Øe dk dksbZ vUr u gks rks fdlh ljlksa osQ nkus rFkk es# ioZr esa dksbZ varj ugha jgsxk A pkj izdkj osQ ijek.kqvksa
(laLo`Qr esa lw{ere d.k dks ijek.kq dgrs gSa) dh dYiuk dh xbZ ftudh viuh vfHkyk{kf.kd lagfr rFkk vU;
fo'ks"krk,¡ Fkha tks bl izdkj gSa % Hkwfe (i`Foh)] vi~ (ty)] rst (vfXu) rFkk ok;q (gok) A mUgksaus vkdk'k (varfj{k)
dks lrr~ rFkk vfØ; ekuk vkSj ;g crk;k fd bldh dksbZ ijek.oh; lajpuk ugha gS A ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ fofHkUu
v.kqvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa (tSls nks ijek.kq la;ksx djosQ ,d f}ijek.kqd v.kq ^}S.kqd*] rhu ijek.kqvksa osQ la;ksx ls
^=kljs.kq* vFkok f=kijek.kqd v.kq cukrs gSa)] buosQ xq.k la?kVd v.kqvksa dh izo`Qfr ,oa vuqikr ij fuHkZj djrs gSa A vuqekuksa
}kjk vFkok mu fof/;ksa }kjk tks gesa Kkr ugha gSa] mUgksaus ijek.kqvksa osQ vkdkj dk vkdyu Hkh fd;k A bu vkdyuksa
esa fofo/rk gS A yfyr foLrkj & cq¼ dh ,d izfl¼ thouh ftls eq[; :i ls bZlk iwoZ f}rh; 'krkCnh esa fy[kk x;k]
esa ijek.kq dk vkdkj 10
-10 
m dh dksfV dk crk;k x;k gS A ;g vkdyu ijek.kq osQ vkdkj osQ vk/qfud vkdyuksa osQ
fudV gS A
iqjkru xzhl esa] MseksfØVl (prqFkZ 'krkCnh bZ-iw-) dks mudh ijek.oh; ifjdYiuk osQ fy, loZJs"B ekuk tkrk gSA
xzhd Hkk"kk esa 'Atom' 'kCn dk vFkZ gS ^vfoHkkT;* A muosQ vuqlkj ijek.kq ,d nwljs ls HkkSfrd :i esa] vko`Qfr esa]
vkdkj esa rFkk vU; xq.kksa esa fHkUu gksrs gSa rFkk blh osQ ifj.kkeLo:i muosQ la;ksx }kjk fufeZr inkFkks± osQ fHkUu&fHkUu
xq.k gksrs gSaA muosQ fopkjksa osQ vuqlkj ty osQ v.kq fpdus rFkk xksy gksrs gSa rFkk os ,d nwljs osQ lkFk tqM+us ;ksX; ugha
gksrs] ;gh dkj.k gS fd ty vklkuh ls izokfgr gksus yxrk gSA Hkwfe osQ ijek.kq [kqjnjs rFkk dk¡Vsnkj gksrs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k os
,d nwljs dks tdM+s jgrs gSa rFkk dBksj inkFkZ fufeZr djrs gSa A muosQ fopkj ls vfXu osQ ijek.kq d¡Vhys gksrs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k
os ihM+knk;d tyu mRiUu djrs gSaA ;s /kj.kk,¡ fpÙkkd"kZd gksrs gq, Hkh] vkSj vkxs fodflr u gks ldhaA bldk dnkfpr ;g
dkj.k gks ldrk gS fd ;s fopkj mu nk'kZfudksa dh varnZ'khZ dYiuk,a ,oa vuqeku ek=k Fks] ftudk u rks ijh{k.k fd;k
x;k Fkk vkSj u gh ek=kkRed iz;ksxksa (tks fd vk/qfud foKku dk izek.k&fpÉ gSa) }kjk la'kks/u A
v.kqxfr fl¼kar 329 330 HkkSfrdh
gSa fd inkFkZ v.kqvksa (,d ;k vf/d ijek.kqvksa ls cus) ls
feydj cuk gksrk gSA bysDVªkWu lw{en'khZ ,oa Øeoh{k.k
lqjaxd lw{en'khZ dh lgk;rk ls vc ge mudks ns[k ldrs
gSaA ijek.kq dk vkeki yxHkx ,d ,saXLVªkWe (1Å) (10
–10
m)  gSA
Bkslksa esa] tgk¡ d.k dldj ,d nwljs ls tqM+s gSa] ijek.kqvksa osQ
chp oqQN ,saXLVªkWe (2 Å) dh nwjh gSA nzoksa esa Hkh ijek.kqvksa osQ
chp bruh gh nwjh gSA nzoksa eas ijek.kq ,d nwljs osQ lkFk mruh
n`<+rk ls ugha c¡/s gksrs ftrus Bkslksa esa] vkSj] blfy, b/j&
m/j xfr dj ldrs gSaA blhfy,] nzoksa esa izokg gksrk gSA xSlksa
esa varjijek.kqd nwjh nlksa ,aXLVªkWe esa gksrh gSA og vkSlr nwjh
tks dksbZ v.kq fcuk la?kêð fd, py ldrk gS mldh vkSlr
eqDr iFk dgykrh gSA xSlksa esa vkSlr eqDr iFk gtkjksa ,aXLVªkWe
dh dksfV dk gksrk gSA vr% xSlksa esa ijek.kq vR;f/d Lora=k
gksrs gSa vkSj cM+h&cM+h nwfj;ksa rd fcuk la?kêð fd, tk ldrs
gSaA ;fn can djosQ u j[kk tk,] rks xSlsa folfjr gks tkrh gSaA
Bkslksa vkSj nzoksa esa ikl&ikl gksus osQ dkj.k ijek.kqvksa osQ chp
osQ varj ijek.kqd cy egRoiw.kZ gks tkrs gSaA ;s cy vf/d
nwfj;ksa ij vkd"kZ.k vkSj vYi nwjh ij izfrd"kZ.k cy gksrs gSaA
tc ijek.kq ,d nwljs ls oqQN ,aXLVªkWe dh nwjh ij gksrs gSa rks
os ,d nwljs dks vkd£"kr djrs gSa ij cgqr ikl yk, tkus ij
izfrd£"kr djus yxrs gSaA xSl dk LFkSfrd fn[kkbZ iM+uk
Hkzked gSA xSl lfØ;rk ls Hkjiwj gS vkSj budk larqyu xfrd
larqyu gSA xfrd larqyu esa v.kq ,d nwljs ls la?kV ð djrs gSa
vkSj la?kVð dh vof/ eas mudh pkyksa esa ifjorZu gksrk gSA
osQoy vkSlr xq.k fu;r jgrs gSaA
ijek.kq fl¼kar gekjh [kkstksa dk var ugha gS cfYd ;g
rks bldk ,d vkjaHk gSA vc ge tkurs gSa fd ijek.kq
vfoHkkT; ;k ewy d.k ugha gSaA muesa ,d ukfHkd vkSj
bysDVªkWu gksrs gSaA ukfHkd Lo;a izksVkWuksa vkSj U;wVªkWuksa ls cus gksrs
gSaA ;gh ugha izksVkWu rFkk U;wVªkWu Dokdks±  ls feydj cus gksrs
gSaA gks ldrk gS fd DokoZQ Hkh bl dgkuh dk var u gksaA ;g
Hkh gks ldrk gS fd fLVªax (rarq) tSlh dksbZ izkFkfed lÙkk gksA
izo`Qfr gekjs fy, lnSo gh foy{k.k Hkjh gS] ij] lR; dh
[kkst vkuannk;d gksrh gS vkSj gj vkfo"dkj esa viuk lkSan;Z
gksrk gSA bl vè;k; esa ge viuk vè;;u xSlksa osQ (vkSj FkksM+k
cgqr Bkslksa osQ) O;ogkj rd gh lhfer j[ksaxsA blosQ fy, ge
mUgsa vuojr xfr djrs xfreku d.kksa dk lewg ekusaxsA
13.3   xSlksa dk O;ogkj
Bkslksa ,oa nzoksa dh rqyuk esa xSlksa osQ xq.kksa dks le>uk vklku
gSA ;g eq[;r% bl dkj.k gksrk gS] D;ksafd] xSl esa v.kq ,d
nwljs ls nwj&nwj gksrs gSa vkSj nks v.kqvksa osQ la?kêð dh fLFkfr
dks NksM+dj muosQ chp ikjLifjd vU;ksU; fØ;k,¡ mis{k.kh;
gksrh gSa tSls fuEu nkc o muosQ nzfor (;k ?kuhHkwr) gksus osQ rkiksa
dh vis{kk vR;f/d mPp rki ij vius rki] nkc vkSj vk;ru
esa yxHkx fuEufyf[kr laca/ n'kkZrh gSa (nsf[k, vè;k; 11)
PV = KT (13.1)
;g laca/ xSl osQ fn, x, uewus osQ fy, gSA ;gk¡ T  osQfYou
(;k ije) iSekus ij rki gS]  K  fn, x, uewus osQ fy,
fu;rkad gS ijarq vk;ru osQ lkFk ifjo£rr gksrk gS ;fn vc
ge ijek.kq ;k v.kq dh /kj.kk ykxw djsa rks]  K  fn, x, uewus
esa v.kqvksa dh la[;k N  osQ vuqØekuqikrh gSA ge fy[k ldrs
gSa] K = N kA iz;ksx gesa crkrs gSa fd k dk eku lHkh xSlksa osQ
fy, leku gSA bldks cksYV~leku fu;rkad dgk tkrk gS vkSj
k
B  
}kjk fu£n"V fd;k tkrk gSA
tkWu MkYVu (1766-1844)
og ,d vaxzst jlk;uK FksA tc vyx&vyx rjg osQ ijek.kq la;ksftr gksrs gSa rks
os oqQN ljy fu;eksa dk ikyu djrs gSaA MkYVu dk ijek.kq fl¼kar bu fu;eksa dh
ljy O;k[;k djrk gSA MkYVu esa o.kk±/rk laca/h ,d fl¼kar
Hkh izLrqr fd;kA
,esfn;ks vkoksxknzks (1776 – 1856)
mUgksaus ,d vR;ar cqf¼eÙkkiw.kZ vuqeku yxk;k fd leku rki
vkSj nkc ij lHkh xSlksa osQ leku vk;ruksa esa v.kqvksa dh
la[;k leku gksrh gSA blls xSlksa dh la;kstu izfØ;k dks ,d
ljy <ax ls le>us esa lgk;rk feyhA ;g dFku vc vkoksxknzks dh ifjdYiuk
(;k fu;e) dgykrk gSA mUgksaus ;g Hkh izLrkfor fd;k fd gkbMªkstu] vkWDlhtu]
ukbVªkstu tSlh xSlksa osQ lw{ere la?kVd d.k ijek.kq ugha cfYd f}ijek.kqd v.kq gSaA
tkWu MkYVu
(1766-1844)
,esfn;ks vkoksxknzks
(1776-1856)
v.kqxfr fl¼kar 331
?
 
11 2 2
11 2 2
PV P V
NT N T
=
 
=
 
fu;rkad = k
B (13.2)
;fn P, V  ,oa T  leku gksa rks N  Hkh lHkh xSlksa osQ fy, leku
gksxkA ;gh vkoksxknzks ifjdYiuk gS fd leku rki ,oa nkc ij
lHkh xSlksa osQ izfr ,dkad vk;ru esa v.kqvksa dh la[;k leku
gksrh gSA fdlh xSl osQ 22-4 yhVj vk;ru eas ;g la[;k
6-02 × 10
23
 gSA bl la[;k dks vkoksxknzks la[;k dgk tkrk gS
vkSj laosQr N
A 
}kjk fpfÉr fd;k tkrk gSA fdlh xSl osQ
22-4 yhVj vk;ru dk  STP (ekud rki = 273K ,oa
ekud nkc = 1 ,VekSfLiQ;j) ij nzO;eku ml xSl osQ xzke
esa O;Dr v.kq nzO;eku osQ cjkcj gSA inkFkZ dh ;g ek=kk eksy
(mole) dgykrh gS (vf/d ifj'kq¼ ifjHkk"kk osQ fy,
vè;k; 2 nsf[k,)A vkoksxknzks us] jklk;fud vfHkfØ;kvksa osQ
vè;;u osQ vk/kj ij ;g vuqeku yxk fy;k Fkk fd leku
rki vkSj nkc ij xSlksa osQ leku vk;ru esa v.kqvksa dh la[;k
leku gksxhA v.kqxfr fl¼kar bl ifjdYiuk dks U;k;laxr
Bgjkrk gSA
vkn'kZ xSl lehdj.k dks ge bl izdkj fy[k ldrs gSa]
PV = µ RT (13.3)
tgk¡  µ   eksyksa dh la[;k gS ,oa R  = N
A
 k
B
 ,d lkoZf=kd
fu;rkad gSA rki T, ije rki gSA ije rki osQ fy, osQfYou
iSekuk pqusa] rks  R = 8.314 J mol
–1
K
–1
A ;gk¡
0 A
MN
MN
µ==
(13.4)
tgk¡] M xSl dk nzO;eku gS ftlesa N  v.kq gSa] M
0
 eksyj nzO;eku
gS ,oa N
A
 vkoksxknzks la[;k gSA lehdj.k (13-4) dk mi;ksx
djosQ lehdj.k (13-3) dks bl izdkj O;Dr dj ldrs gSa %
PV = k
B
 NT   vFkok P = k
B
 nT
P (atm)
fp=k 13.1 fuEu nkc vkSj mPp rkiksa ij okLrfod xSlksa dk
O;ogkj vkn'kZ xSlksa osQ ln`'k gksus yxrk gSA
tgk¡ n la[;k ?kuRo] vFkkZr~ izfr ,dkad vk;ru esa v.kqvksa dh
la[;k gSA k
B
 mifjo£.kr cksYV~”keku fu;rkad gSaA  SI ek=kdksa esa
bldk eku 1-38 × 10
&23
 J K
–1  
gSA
lehdj.k (13-3) dk nwljk mi;ksxh :i gS]
0
RT
P
M
?
=
(13.5)
tgk¡  ?  xSl dk nzO;eku ?kuRo gSA
dksbZ xSl] tks lehdj.k (13-3) dk] lHkh rkiksa vkSj
nkcksa ij iw.kZr% ikyu djrh gS vkn'kZ xSl dgykrh gSA vr%
vkn'kZ xSl fdlh xSl dk ljy lS¼kafrd fun'kZ gSA dksbZ Hkh
okLrfod xSl lgh vFkks± esa vkn'kZ xSl ugha gksrhA fp=k
13-1 esa rhu fHkUu rkiksa ij fdlh okLrfod xSl dk vkn'kZ
xSl ls fopyu n'kkZ;k x;k gSA è;ku nhft,] fuEu nkcksa vkSj
mPp rkiksa ij lHkh oØ vkn'kZ xSl O;ogkj osQ ln`'k gksus
yxrs gSaA
fuEu nkcksa vkSj mPp rkiksa ij v.kq nwj&nwj gksrs gSa vkSj
muosQ chp oQh vkf.od vU;ksU; fØ;k,¡ mis{k.kh; gksrh gSaA
vU;ksU; fØ;kvksa dh vuqifLFkfr esa xSl ,d vkn'kZ xSl dh
rjg O;ogkj djrh gSA
lehdj.k 13-3 esa ;fn ge µ  ,oa T  dks fuf'pr dj nsa]
rks]
PV = fu;rkad (13.6)
vFkkZr~] fu;r rki ij] xSl osQ fdlh fn, x, nzO;eku dk
nkc mlosQ vk;ru osQ O;qRØekuqikrh gksrk gSA ;gh izfl¼
ckW;y dk fu;e gSA fp=k 13-2 esa izk;ksfxd P-V  oØ ,oa
fp=k 13.2 Hkki osQ fy,] rhu fHkUu rkiksa ij izk;ksfxd P-V oØksa
(Bksl js[kk,¡) dh ckW;y osQ fu;e (¯cnqfdr js[kk,¡)
ls rqyukA  P  dk eku 22 atm osQ ek=kdksa esa gS vkSj
V  dk eku 0-09 yhVj osQ ek=kdksa esa gSA
vkn'kZ xSl
( )
–1 –1
Jmol K
pV
T µ
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