NCERT Textbook: Clay (Living Craft Traditions of India) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


2 CLAY
The art of pottery is probably as old as human history. No
other art traces the story of human beings on this earth as
clearly as pottery does. The tides of time have washed away
many civilisations but evidence of their existence remains
in fragments of pottery.
There are two reasons why this is true: the first is that
clay is found in abundance in practically all parts of the
world; the second is that clay objects are the least perishable
of all materials.
The history of pottery tells of the daily life of human
beings, their death and burial, of human migration, trade
and conquest, cultural practices and influences.
As to the discovery of how clay could be manipulated to
make pottery, it is easy to imagine how, as prehistoric
communities walked through rain-soaked mud, they noticed
their footprints and how these impressions became
hardened by the wind and sun. Exactly when human beings
intentionally used these discoveries for making pottery is
unknown but it may have been invented independently in
many parts of the world.
However, the process of making a pot is a long and
difficult one that has evolved over many generations of
trial and experiment.
What is Clay?
Clay is universally found as it forms part
of the earthís crust that developed due to
weathering over thousands of years. In India
different types of clay are found along
riverbeds and banks, lakes and ponds, and
agricultural lands. Clay is essentially silica
but the varying mineral content in clay adds
to its colour and determines how suited it
is for different processes.
Clay is cleaned by removing large stony
particles, gravel and humus.
Pots
Potter shaping a
horse-head
Page 2


2 CLAY
The art of pottery is probably as old as human history. No
other art traces the story of human beings on this earth as
clearly as pottery does. The tides of time have washed away
many civilisations but evidence of their existence remains
in fragments of pottery.
There are two reasons why this is true: the first is that
clay is found in abundance in practically all parts of the
world; the second is that clay objects are the least perishable
of all materials.
The history of pottery tells of the daily life of human
beings, their death and burial, of human migration, trade
and conquest, cultural practices and influences.
As to the discovery of how clay could be manipulated to
make pottery, it is easy to imagine how, as prehistoric
communities walked through rain-soaked mud, they noticed
their footprints and how these impressions became
hardened by the wind and sun. Exactly when human beings
intentionally used these discoveries for making pottery is
unknown but it may have been invented independently in
many parts of the world.
However, the process of making a pot is a long and
difficult one that has evolved over many generations of
trial and experiment.
What is Clay?
Clay is universally found as it forms part
of the earthís crust that developed due to
weathering over thousands of years. In India
different types of clay are found along
riverbeds and banks, lakes and ponds, and
agricultural lands. Clay is essentially silica
but the varying mineral content in clay adds
to its colour and determines how suited it
is for different processes.
Clay is cleaned by removing large stony
particles, gravel and humus.
Pots
Potter shaping a
horse-head
16 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Pottery
Artists, through the ages, have loved clay as it is the most
sensitive material on earth for it captures the slightest
touch or the gentlest imprint. As soon as the clay object is
dried or fired, a chemical change occurs and the object
becomes rigid and is no longer sensitive to touch.
Clay of some kind or the other can be found almost
anywhere in the world. India, too, has an unbroken
continuous history.  Artists have used clay to produce
objects for the home ó cooking pots, roof tiles, clay bricks
and sculptures.
Oh! the pot is everywhere!
Where there is buttermilk, in the cupboard, a pot
Where water is stored, at the waterstand, a pot
Where food is kept, on the stove, a pot
Where there is jaggery, in the attic, a pot.
In the heart of the home,
As ëgotrají, ancestors, a pot
Vastu, during house warming,
At the threshold of each home, a pot
Where a marriage ëpandalí is built, a pot
When the ëgarbaí dance takes place,
In the courtyard, a pot.
During sickness,
Left in the outskirts of the village, a pot
At every stop in a pilgrimage, a pot
In death, at the cremation ground, a pot
At a ëYagnaí representing the planets are pots
In the village square, the singer plays a beat on a pot.
ñ from Prakriti, Indira Gandhi National
Centre for the Arts
When clay is mixed with water it becomes malleable, elastic. Thinner
clay solutions can be created to use as paint for walls and on
sculptures.†By controlling the amount of water that is mixed with clay
it can be used in different ways.
? It can be made into a creamy compound that can be poured  into
moulds and allowed to set.
? It can be mixed to a leathery consistency and cut like a sponge.
? When dry the surface can be scraped off as fine powder.
? Straw and grass can be added to create a strong, rough texture
ideal for the creation of very large images.
So each artist treats clay differently to suit the type of object that is to
be created.
Page 3


2 CLAY
The art of pottery is probably as old as human history. No
other art traces the story of human beings on this earth as
clearly as pottery does. The tides of time have washed away
many civilisations but evidence of their existence remains
in fragments of pottery.
There are two reasons why this is true: the first is that
clay is found in abundance in practically all parts of the
world; the second is that clay objects are the least perishable
of all materials.
The history of pottery tells of the daily life of human
beings, their death and burial, of human migration, trade
and conquest, cultural practices and influences.
As to the discovery of how clay could be manipulated to
make pottery, it is easy to imagine how, as prehistoric
communities walked through rain-soaked mud, they noticed
their footprints and how these impressions became
hardened by the wind and sun. Exactly when human beings
intentionally used these discoveries for making pottery is
unknown but it may have been invented independently in
many parts of the world.
However, the process of making a pot is a long and
difficult one that has evolved over many generations of
trial and experiment.
What is Clay?
Clay is universally found as it forms part
of the earthís crust that developed due to
weathering over thousands of years. In India
different types of clay are found along
riverbeds and banks, lakes and ponds, and
agricultural lands. Clay is essentially silica
but the varying mineral content in clay adds
to its colour and determines how suited it
is for different processes.
Clay is cleaned by removing large stony
particles, gravel and humus.
Pots
Potter shaping a
horse-head
16 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Pottery
Artists, through the ages, have loved clay as it is the most
sensitive material on earth for it captures the slightest
touch or the gentlest imprint. As soon as the clay object is
dried or fired, a chemical change occurs and the object
becomes rigid and is no longer sensitive to touch.
Clay of some kind or the other can be found almost
anywhere in the world. India, too, has an unbroken
continuous history.  Artists have used clay to produce
objects for the home ó cooking pots, roof tiles, clay bricks
and sculptures.
Oh! the pot is everywhere!
Where there is buttermilk, in the cupboard, a pot
Where water is stored, at the waterstand, a pot
Where food is kept, on the stove, a pot
Where there is jaggery, in the attic, a pot.
In the heart of the home,
As ëgotrají, ancestors, a pot
Vastu, during house warming,
At the threshold of each home, a pot
Where a marriage ëpandalí is built, a pot
When the ëgarbaí dance takes place,
In the courtyard, a pot.
During sickness,
Left in the outskirts of the village, a pot
At every stop in a pilgrimage, a pot
In death, at the cremation ground, a pot
At a ëYagnaí representing the planets are pots
In the village square, the singer plays a beat on a pot.
ñ from Prakriti, Indira Gandhi National
Centre for the Arts
When clay is mixed with water it becomes malleable, elastic. Thinner
clay solutions can be created to use as paint for walls and on
sculptures.†By controlling the amount of water that is mixed with clay
it can be used in different ways.
? It can be made into a creamy compound that can be poured  into
moulds and allowed to set.
? It can be mixed to a leathery consistency and cut like a sponge.
? When dry the surface can be scraped off as fine powder.
? Straw and grass can be added to create a strong, rough texture
ideal for the creation of very large images.
So each artist treats clay differently to suit the type of object that is to
be created.
17 CLAY
Clay objects are prepared using two basic techniques:
? wheel-turned pottery
? hand modelling.
A variety of processes within these two techniques have
evolved.
Wheel-turned Pottery
The earliest method of making pots for storage may have
used the coiling technique. The artist rolls out strips of
clay and then places one coil upon another, joining them
together with his fingers to form a hollow pot.
A potter at his wheel
The most important change came with
the invention of the potterís wheel. There
are many kinds of wheels used in India
today. The first is a simple flat stone or
wooden disc that is turned with the hand
or a stick. By placing a soft lump of clay
on the centre of the disc and turning the
wheel the potter can change the shape
of the clay. By varying the pressure of
her/his fingers and palms she/he can
create a pot of different sizes and shapes.
By pushing with her/his thumbs down
into the centre of the ball of clay and
pulling gently outward and upward the
shape of the hollow pot takes form.
Another type of wheel is mounted on a
vertical shaft. By extending the shaft and
adding another disc at the bottom it is
possible to turn the wheel with the feet,
leaving both hands free to make the pot.
Today even motorised wheels are used.
Finally, smoothen the
coils from the inside
for good binding.
Roll a coil with
outstretched fingers.
Join and add coils to form
interesting patterns.
Page 4


2 CLAY
The art of pottery is probably as old as human history. No
other art traces the story of human beings on this earth as
clearly as pottery does. The tides of time have washed away
many civilisations but evidence of their existence remains
in fragments of pottery.
There are two reasons why this is true: the first is that
clay is found in abundance in practically all parts of the
world; the second is that clay objects are the least perishable
of all materials.
The history of pottery tells of the daily life of human
beings, their death and burial, of human migration, trade
and conquest, cultural practices and influences.
As to the discovery of how clay could be manipulated to
make pottery, it is easy to imagine how, as prehistoric
communities walked through rain-soaked mud, they noticed
their footprints and how these impressions became
hardened by the wind and sun. Exactly when human beings
intentionally used these discoveries for making pottery is
unknown but it may have been invented independently in
many parts of the world.
However, the process of making a pot is a long and
difficult one that has evolved over many generations of
trial and experiment.
What is Clay?
Clay is universally found as it forms part
of the earthís crust that developed due to
weathering over thousands of years. In India
different types of clay are found along
riverbeds and banks, lakes and ponds, and
agricultural lands. Clay is essentially silica
but the varying mineral content in clay adds
to its colour and determines how suited it
is for different processes.
Clay is cleaned by removing large stony
particles, gravel and humus.
Pots
Potter shaping a
horse-head
16 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Pottery
Artists, through the ages, have loved clay as it is the most
sensitive material on earth for it captures the slightest
touch or the gentlest imprint. As soon as the clay object is
dried or fired, a chemical change occurs and the object
becomes rigid and is no longer sensitive to touch.
Clay of some kind or the other can be found almost
anywhere in the world. India, too, has an unbroken
continuous history.  Artists have used clay to produce
objects for the home ó cooking pots, roof tiles, clay bricks
and sculptures.
Oh! the pot is everywhere!
Where there is buttermilk, in the cupboard, a pot
Where water is stored, at the waterstand, a pot
Where food is kept, on the stove, a pot
Where there is jaggery, in the attic, a pot.
In the heart of the home,
As ëgotrají, ancestors, a pot
Vastu, during house warming,
At the threshold of each home, a pot
Where a marriage ëpandalí is built, a pot
When the ëgarbaí dance takes place,
In the courtyard, a pot.
During sickness,
Left in the outskirts of the village, a pot
At every stop in a pilgrimage, a pot
In death, at the cremation ground, a pot
At a ëYagnaí representing the planets are pots
In the village square, the singer plays a beat on a pot.
ñ from Prakriti, Indira Gandhi National
Centre for the Arts
When clay is mixed with water it becomes malleable, elastic. Thinner
clay solutions can be created to use as paint for walls and on
sculptures.†By controlling the amount of water that is mixed with clay
it can be used in different ways.
? It can be made into a creamy compound that can be poured  into
moulds and allowed to set.
? It can be mixed to a leathery consistency and cut like a sponge.
? When dry the surface can be scraped off as fine powder.
? Straw and grass can be added to create a strong, rough texture
ideal for the creation of very large images.
So each artist treats clay differently to suit the type of object that is to
be created.
17 CLAY
Clay objects are prepared using two basic techniques:
? wheel-turned pottery
? hand modelling.
A variety of processes within these two techniques have
evolved.
Wheel-turned Pottery
The earliest method of making pots for storage may have
used the coiling technique. The artist rolls out strips of
clay and then places one coil upon another, joining them
together with his fingers to form a hollow pot.
A potter at his wheel
The most important change came with
the invention of the potterís wheel. There
are many kinds of wheels used in India
today. The first is a simple flat stone or
wooden disc that is turned with the hand
or a stick. By placing a soft lump of clay
on the centre of the disc and turning the
wheel the potter can change the shape
of the clay. By varying the pressure of
her/his fingers and palms she/he can
create a pot of different sizes and shapes.
By pushing with her/his thumbs down
into the centre of the ball of clay and
pulling gently outward and upward the
shape of the hollow pot takes form.
Another type of wheel is mounted on a
vertical shaft. By extending the shaft and
adding another disc at the bottom it is
possible to turn the wheel with the feet,
leaving both hands free to make the pot.
Today even motorised wheels are used.
Finally, smoothen the
coils from the inside
for good binding.
Roll a coil with
outstretched fingers.
Join and add coils to form
interesting patterns.
18 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Hand Modelling
Modelling is a process used with materials like clay, wax
or plaster.†Clay modelling enables the artist to work from
the inside core to the outside. The artist begins with a well
mixed lump of clay and starts working with his fingers to
give it shape and form.†Clay can be rolled, coiled, pinched
and attached to the main form. This technique has several
advantages that the artist can use to create a sculpture.
He can add legs and arms to the figure by wetting a smaller
piece of clay, rolling it and attaching it to the main body.
The process gives the artist freedom to change, modify
and repair areas at will. If, for example, the nose of the
figure falls off, the artist can just wet the clay piece and
stick it back on to the face. He can then continue to add
smaller details of hair, bangles and necklaces in clay.
Decoration: Clay offers endless
possibilities to create textures and
designs on the wet surface of pots,
which can be pressed or imprinted,
cut out or added on like appliquÈ and
then many parts of the clay object can
be assembled together to forge a
cohesive whole.
Painting: After firing, the craftsperson
can pour a slip, which is the thin liquid
solution of clay that gives the clay
object an even colour. The sculpture
can be painted with mineral colours
to add value to its appearance.
Sometimes clay objects such as pots,
diyas etc. are also painted.
What Is Terracotta?
Once the clay object is made, it can be dried in the sun and
fired in a local kiln made of cowdung and wood. This process
transforms the clay into terracotta. Clay can be fired at
different temperatures from 700ñ1400 degrees C. The intensity
of heat and the type of firing gives the terracotta its colour
and hue that range from dark brown to lively reds.
Once fired, the terracotta becomes insoluble, un-plastic
and durable. On firing, the clay loses its chemically
combined water, and becomes hard and almost imperishable.
That is why 5000-year-old seals from the Harappan
Civilisation still exist.
Terracotta: Firing a clay
object in a kiln transforms
the clay into terracotta.
Clay figurines, West Bengal
Making clay masks
Page 5


2 CLAY
The art of pottery is probably as old as human history. No
other art traces the story of human beings on this earth as
clearly as pottery does. The tides of time have washed away
many civilisations but evidence of their existence remains
in fragments of pottery.
There are two reasons why this is true: the first is that
clay is found in abundance in practically all parts of the
world; the second is that clay objects are the least perishable
of all materials.
The history of pottery tells of the daily life of human
beings, their death and burial, of human migration, trade
and conquest, cultural practices and influences.
As to the discovery of how clay could be manipulated to
make pottery, it is easy to imagine how, as prehistoric
communities walked through rain-soaked mud, they noticed
their footprints and how these impressions became
hardened by the wind and sun. Exactly when human beings
intentionally used these discoveries for making pottery is
unknown but it may have been invented independently in
many parts of the world.
However, the process of making a pot is a long and
difficult one that has evolved over many generations of
trial and experiment.
What is Clay?
Clay is universally found as it forms part
of the earthís crust that developed due to
weathering over thousands of years. In India
different types of clay are found along
riverbeds and banks, lakes and ponds, and
agricultural lands. Clay is essentially silica
but the varying mineral content in clay adds
to its colour and determines how suited it
is for different processes.
Clay is cleaned by removing large stony
particles, gravel and humus.
Pots
Potter shaping a
horse-head
16 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Pottery
Artists, through the ages, have loved clay as it is the most
sensitive material on earth for it captures the slightest
touch or the gentlest imprint. As soon as the clay object is
dried or fired, a chemical change occurs and the object
becomes rigid and is no longer sensitive to touch.
Clay of some kind or the other can be found almost
anywhere in the world. India, too, has an unbroken
continuous history.  Artists have used clay to produce
objects for the home ó cooking pots, roof tiles, clay bricks
and sculptures.
Oh! the pot is everywhere!
Where there is buttermilk, in the cupboard, a pot
Where water is stored, at the waterstand, a pot
Where food is kept, on the stove, a pot
Where there is jaggery, in the attic, a pot.
In the heart of the home,
As ëgotrají, ancestors, a pot
Vastu, during house warming,
At the threshold of each home, a pot
Where a marriage ëpandalí is built, a pot
When the ëgarbaí dance takes place,
In the courtyard, a pot.
During sickness,
Left in the outskirts of the village, a pot
At every stop in a pilgrimage, a pot
In death, at the cremation ground, a pot
At a ëYagnaí representing the planets are pots
In the village square, the singer plays a beat on a pot.
ñ from Prakriti, Indira Gandhi National
Centre for the Arts
When clay is mixed with water it becomes malleable, elastic. Thinner
clay solutions can be created to use as paint for walls and on
sculptures.†By controlling the amount of water that is mixed with clay
it can be used in different ways.
? It can be made into a creamy compound that can be poured  into
moulds and allowed to set.
? It can be mixed to a leathery consistency and cut like a sponge.
? When dry the surface can be scraped off as fine powder.
? Straw and grass can be added to create a strong, rough texture
ideal for the creation of very large images.
So each artist treats clay differently to suit the type of object that is to
be created.
17 CLAY
Clay objects are prepared using two basic techniques:
? wheel-turned pottery
? hand modelling.
A variety of processes within these two techniques have
evolved.
Wheel-turned Pottery
The earliest method of making pots for storage may have
used the coiling technique. The artist rolls out strips of
clay and then places one coil upon another, joining them
together with his fingers to form a hollow pot.
A potter at his wheel
The most important change came with
the invention of the potterís wheel. There
are many kinds of wheels used in India
today. The first is a simple flat stone or
wooden disc that is turned with the hand
or a stick. By placing a soft lump of clay
on the centre of the disc and turning the
wheel the potter can change the shape
of the clay. By varying the pressure of
her/his fingers and palms she/he can
create a pot of different sizes and shapes.
By pushing with her/his thumbs down
into the centre of the ball of clay and
pulling gently outward and upward the
shape of the hollow pot takes form.
Another type of wheel is mounted on a
vertical shaft. By extending the shaft and
adding another disc at the bottom it is
possible to turn the wheel with the feet,
leaving both hands free to make the pot.
Today even motorised wheels are used.
Finally, smoothen the
coils from the inside
for good binding.
Roll a coil with
outstretched fingers.
Join and add coils to form
interesting patterns.
18 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Hand Modelling
Modelling is a process used with materials like clay, wax
or plaster.†Clay modelling enables the artist to work from
the inside core to the outside. The artist begins with a well
mixed lump of clay and starts working with his fingers to
give it shape and form.†Clay can be rolled, coiled, pinched
and attached to the main form. This technique has several
advantages that the artist can use to create a sculpture.
He can add legs and arms to the figure by wetting a smaller
piece of clay, rolling it and attaching it to the main body.
The process gives the artist freedom to change, modify
and repair areas at will. If, for example, the nose of the
figure falls off, the artist can just wet the clay piece and
stick it back on to the face. He can then continue to add
smaller details of hair, bangles and necklaces in clay.
Decoration: Clay offers endless
possibilities to create textures and
designs on the wet surface of pots,
which can be pressed or imprinted,
cut out or added on like appliquÈ and
then many parts of the clay object can
be assembled together to forge a
cohesive whole.
Painting: After firing, the craftsperson
can pour a slip, which is the thin liquid
solution of clay that gives the clay
object an even colour. The sculpture
can be painted with mineral colours
to add value to its appearance.
Sometimes clay objects such as pots,
diyas etc. are also painted.
What Is Terracotta?
Once the clay object is made, it can be dried in the sun and
fired in a local kiln made of cowdung and wood. This process
transforms the clay into terracotta. Clay can be fired at
different temperatures from 700ñ1400 degrees C. The intensity
of heat and the type of firing gives the terracotta its colour
and hue that range from dark brown to lively reds.
Once fired, the terracotta becomes insoluble, un-plastic
and durable. On firing, the clay loses its chemically
combined water, and becomes hard and almost imperishable.
That is why 5000-year-old seals from the Harappan
Civilisation still exist.
Terracotta: Firing a clay
object in a kiln transforms
the clay into terracotta.
Clay figurines, West Bengal
Making clay masks
19 CLAY
Making of Giant Figures
Traditional potters live and work in almost every part of
India. Pottery is a specialised profession and often the
community lives together in a separate section of the village
or town.
Each potter or kumhar has the skill to create hundreds
of pots for different uses ó from huge storage jars for grain
and water, to tiny oil lamps for Diwali. He can design a
childís toy and sculpt giant figurines for worship as well.
To make giant figures, artists have evolved various
techniques. One of them is to make each piece of the figure
on the potterís wheel. This is to prevent the clay figurine
from breaking when it is fired in the kiln. When clay is
fired, it contracts considerably owing to the loss of water
and moisture. A solid model made of ordinary clay would
burst under the pressure of the heat of the kiln. A sculpture
with uneven wall thickness would warp and crack.
Therefore, using the potterís skill in creating parts of the
figure in which the walls are of even thickness is a unique
way of overcoming this problem.
The potter throws clay to create the hollow shapes of
legs, body and neck of the figure he wants to create. These
individual pieces are then assembled by the potter to create
the required form. The four pot-shaped legs are attached
to the hollow torso. To this the artist adds bits of pinched,
pressed and coiled clay for decoration.
This unusual process
involves the imaginative
use of the material and a
great deal of inventiveness
goes into making the form
both technically sound and
aesthetically satisfying.
Some of these votive
figures are two metres
high and their towering
presence only adds to the
genius of the village
potter. Potters make these
figures for their patrons in
lieu of money or food.
A craftsman finishing an
Aiyanar horse