NCERT Textbook: Later Mural traditions (Introduction to Indian Art) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


E
VEN after Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have 
survived which provide valuable evidences to 
reconstruct the tradition of paintings. It may also be noted 
that the sculptures too were plastered and painted. The 
tradition of cave excavations continued further at many 
places where sculpting and painting were done 
simultaneously. 
Badami 
One such site is Badami in the State of Karnataka. Badami 
was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty which 
ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. With 
the decline of the Vakataka rule, the 
Chalukyas established their power in the 
Deccan. The Chalukya king, Mangalesha, 
patronised the excavation of the Badami 
caves. He was the younger son of the 
Chalukya king, Pulakesi I, and the brother 
of Kirtivarman I. The inscription in Cave No.4 
mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the 
beauty of the cave and includes the dedication 
of the image of Vishnu. Thus it may be 
presumed that the cave was excavated in the 
same era and the patron records his 
Vaishnava affiliation. Therefore, the cave is 
popularly known as the Vishnu Cave. Only a 
fragment of the painting has survived on the 
vaulted roof of the front mandapa. 
Paintings in this cave depict palace 
scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of 
Pulakesi I and the elder brother of 
Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with 
his wife and feudatories watching a dance 
scene. Towards the corner of the panel are 
figures of Indra and his retinue. Stylistically 
speaking, the painting represents an 
LATER MURAL 
TRADITIONS 
Queen and 
attendants, Badami 
5 
Page 2


E
VEN after Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have 
survived which provide valuable evidences to 
reconstruct the tradition of paintings. It may also be noted 
that the sculptures too were plastered and painted. The 
tradition of cave excavations continued further at many 
places where sculpting and painting were done 
simultaneously. 
Badami 
One such site is Badami in the State of Karnataka. Badami 
was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty which 
ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. With 
the decline of the Vakataka rule, the 
Chalukyas established their power in the 
Deccan. The Chalukya king, Mangalesha, 
patronised the excavation of the Badami 
caves. He was the younger son of the 
Chalukya king, Pulakesi I, and the brother 
of Kirtivarman I. The inscription in Cave No.4 
mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the 
beauty of the cave and includes the dedication 
of the image of Vishnu. Thus it may be 
presumed that the cave was excavated in the 
same era and the patron records his 
Vaishnava affiliation. Therefore, the cave is 
popularly known as the Vishnu Cave. Only a 
fragment of the painting has survived on the 
vaulted roof of the front mandapa. 
Paintings in this cave depict palace 
scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of 
Pulakesi I and the elder brother of 
Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with 
his wife and feudatories watching a dance 
scene. Towards the corner of the panel are 
figures of Indra and his retinue. Stylistically 
speaking, the painting represents an 
LATER MURAL 
TRADITIONS 
Queen and 
attendants, Badami 
5 
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 62 
extension of the tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to 
Badami in South India. The sinuously drawn lines, fluid 
forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency 
and maturity the artists had achieved in the sixth century 
CE. The gracefully drawn faces of the king and the queen 
remind us of the style of modelling in Ajanta. Their eye- 
sockets are large, eyes are half-closed, and lips are 
protruding. It is noteworthy to observe that the contours 
of different parts of the face create protruding structures 
of the face itself. Thus, with simple line treatment artists 
could create volume. 
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and 
Chola Kings 
The tradition of painting extended further down south in 
Tamil Nadu in the preceding centuries with regional 
variations during the regimes of Pallava, Pandya and Chola 
dynasties. The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya 
kings in parts of South India, were also patrons of arts. 
Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was 
responsible for building temples at Panamalai, 
Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram. The inscription at 
Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with 
numerous  titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), 
Sittanvasal — early Pandya period, ninth century CE 
Page 3


E
VEN after Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have 
survived which provide valuable evidences to 
reconstruct the tradition of paintings. It may also be noted 
that the sculptures too were plastered and painted. The 
tradition of cave excavations continued further at many 
places where sculpting and painting were done 
simultaneously. 
Badami 
One such site is Badami in the State of Karnataka. Badami 
was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty which 
ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. With 
the decline of the Vakataka rule, the 
Chalukyas established their power in the 
Deccan. The Chalukya king, Mangalesha, 
patronised the excavation of the Badami 
caves. He was the younger son of the 
Chalukya king, Pulakesi I, and the brother 
of Kirtivarman I. The inscription in Cave No.4 
mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the 
beauty of the cave and includes the dedication 
of the image of Vishnu. Thus it may be 
presumed that the cave was excavated in the 
same era and the patron records his 
Vaishnava affiliation. Therefore, the cave is 
popularly known as the Vishnu Cave. Only a 
fragment of the painting has survived on the 
vaulted roof of the front mandapa. 
Paintings in this cave depict palace 
scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of 
Pulakesi I and the elder brother of 
Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with 
his wife and feudatories watching a dance 
scene. Towards the corner of the panel are 
figures of Indra and his retinue. Stylistically 
speaking, the painting represents an 
LATER MURAL 
TRADITIONS 
Queen and 
attendants, Badami 
5 
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 62 
extension of the tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to 
Badami in South India. The sinuously drawn lines, fluid 
forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency 
and maturity the artists had achieved in the sixth century 
CE. The gracefully drawn faces of the king and the queen 
remind us of the style of modelling in Ajanta. Their eye- 
sockets are large, eyes are half-closed, and lips are 
protruding. It is noteworthy to observe that the contours 
of different parts of the face create protruding structures 
of the face itself. Thus, with simple line treatment artists 
could create volume. 
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and 
Chola Kings 
The tradition of painting extended further down south in 
Tamil Nadu in the preceding centuries with regional 
variations during the regimes of Pallava, Pandya and Chola 
dynasties. The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya 
kings in parts of South India, were also patrons of arts. 
Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was 
responsible for building temples at Panamalai, 
Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram. The inscription at 
Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with 
numerous  titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), 
Sittanvasal — early Pandya period, ninth century CE 
LATER MURAL TRADITIONS 63 
Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), Chaityakari (temple 
builder), which show his interest in art activities. The 
paintings in these temples too were done at his initiative, 
though only fragments remain. The Panamalai figure of a 
female divinity is drawn gracefully. Paintings at the 
Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the Pallava king, 
Rajsimha. Only traces of paintings  remain now which 
depict Somaskanda. Faces are round and large. Lines are 
rhythmic with increased ornamentation when compared 
with the paintings of an earlier periods. Depiction of torso 
still remains like the earlier sculptural tradition but is 
elongated. 
When the Pandyas rose to power, they too patronised 
art. Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal 
are some of the surviving examples. A few fragmented 
layers of paintings can be seen in Tirumalaipuram. In 
Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of 
shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets. 
On the pillars of the veranda are seen dancing figures 
of celestial nymphs. The contours of figures are firmly 
drawn and painted in vermilion red on a lighter 
background. The body is rendered in yellow with subtle 
modelling. Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers, 
rhythm in their swaying movement, all speak of the artists’ 
skill in creative imagination in visualising the forms in 
Devi — seventh century CE, Panamalai 
Page 4


E
VEN after Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have 
survived which provide valuable evidences to 
reconstruct the tradition of paintings. It may also be noted 
that the sculptures too were plastered and painted. The 
tradition of cave excavations continued further at many 
places where sculpting and painting were done 
simultaneously. 
Badami 
One such site is Badami in the State of Karnataka. Badami 
was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty which 
ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. With 
the decline of the Vakataka rule, the 
Chalukyas established their power in the 
Deccan. The Chalukya king, Mangalesha, 
patronised the excavation of the Badami 
caves. He was the younger son of the 
Chalukya king, Pulakesi I, and the brother 
of Kirtivarman I. The inscription in Cave No.4 
mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the 
beauty of the cave and includes the dedication 
of the image of Vishnu. Thus it may be 
presumed that the cave was excavated in the 
same era and the patron records his 
Vaishnava affiliation. Therefore, the cave is 
popularly known as the Vishnu Cave. Only a 
fragment of the painting has survived on the 
vaulted roof of the front mandapa. 
Paintings in this cave depict palace 
scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of 
Pulakesi I and the elder brother of 
Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with 
his wife and feudatories watching a dance 
scene. Towards the corner of the panel are 
figures of Indra and his retinue. Stylistically 
speaking, the painting represents an 
LATER MURAL 
TRADITIONS 
Queen and 
attendants, Badami 
5 
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 62 
extension of the tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to 
Badami in South India. The sinuously drawn lines, fluid 
forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency 
and maturity the artists had achieved in the sixth century 
CE. The gracefully drawn faces of the king and the queen 
remind us of the style of modelling in Ajanta. Their eye- 
sockets are large, eyes are half-closed, and lips are 
protruding. It is noteworthy to observe that the contours 
of different parts of the face create protruding structures 
of the face itself. Thus, with simple line treatment artists 
could create volume. 
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and 
Chola Kings 
The tradition of painting extended further down south in 
Tamil Nadu in the preceding centuries with regional 
variations during the regimes of Pallava, Pandya and Chola 
dynasties. The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya 
kings in parts of South India, were also patrons of arts. 
Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was 
responsible for building temples at Panamalai, 
Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram. The inscription at 
Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with 
numerous  titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), 
Sittanvasal — early Pandya period, ninth century CE 
LATER MURAL TRADITIONS 63 
Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), Chaityakari (temple 
builder), which show his interest in art activities. The 
paintings in these temples too were done at his initiative, 
though only fragments remain. The Panamalai figure of a 
female divinity is drawn gracefully. Paintings at the 
Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the Pallava king, 
Rajsimha. Only traces of paintings  remain now which 
depict Somaskanda. Faces are round and large. Lines are 
rhythmic with increased ornamentation when compared 
with the paintings of an earlier periods. Depiction of torso 
still remains like the earlier sculptural tradition but is 
elongated. 
When the Pandyas rose to power, they too patronised 
art. Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal 
are some of the surviving examples. A few fragmented 
layers of paintings can be seen in Tirumalaipuram. In 
Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of 
shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets. 
On the pillars of the veranda are seen dancing figures 
of celestial nymphs. The contours of figures are firmly 
drawn and painted in vermilion red on a lighter 
background. The body is rendered in yellow with subtle 
modelling. Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers, 
rhythm in their swaying movement, all speak of the artists’ 
skill in creative imagination in visualising the forms in 
Devi — seventh century CE, Panamalai 
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 64 
the architectural context. Their eyes are slightly elongated 
and at times protrude off the face. This feature is observed 
in many subsequent paintings in the Deccan and South 
India. 
The tradition of building temples and embellishing them 
with carvings and paintings continued during the reign of 
the Chola  kings who ruled over the region from the ninth 
to the thirteenth century. But it was in the eleventh 
century, when the Cholas reached their zenith of power, 
that masterpieces of Chola art and architecture began to 
appear. The temples of Brihadeswara at Thanjavur, 
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram were built 
during the reigns of Rajaraja Chola and his son, Rajendra 
Chola. 
Though Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai, the 
most important are those in Brihadeswara temple. The 
paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage 
surrounding the shrine. Two layers of paint were found 
when they were discovered. The upper layer was painted 
during the Nayak period, in the sixteenth century. Thanks 
to the cleaning of the surface painting, examples of the 
great tradition of painting during the Chola Period were 
unveiled. The paintings show narrations and aspects 
related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as 
Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron 
Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc. 
Vijayanagara Murals 
The paintings of Brihadeswara temple exemplify the 
stylistic maturity the artists evolved over the years.  Sinuous 
pre-determined flow of lines, supple modelling of figures, 
Dakshinamurty, Vijayanagar , Lepakshi 
Page 5


E
VEN after Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have 
survived which provide valuable evidences to 
reconstruct the tradition of paintings. It may also be noted 
that the sculptures too were plastered and painted. The 
tradition of cave excavations continued further at many 
places where sculpting and painting were done 
simultaneously. 
Badami 
One such site is Badami in the State of Karnataka. Badami 
was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty which 
ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. With 
the decline of the Vakataka rule, the 
Chalukyas established their power in the 
Deccan. The Chalukya king, Mangalesha, 
patronised the excavation of the Badami 
caves. He was the younger son of the 
Chalukya king, Pulakesi I, and the brother 
of Kirtivarman I. The inscription in Cave No.4 
mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the 
beauty of the cave and includes the dedication 
of the image of Vishnu. Thus it may be 
presumed that the cave was excavated in the 
same era and the patron records his 
Vaishnava affiliation. Therefore, the cave is 
popularly known as the Vishnu Cave. Only a 
fragment of the painting has survived on the 
vaulted roof of the front mandapa. 
Paintings in this cave depict palace 
scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of 
Pulakesi I and the elder brother of 
Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with 
his wife and feudatories watching a dance 
scene. Towards the corner of the panel are 
figures of Indra and his retinue. Stylistically 
speaking, the painting represents an 
LATER MURAL 
TRADITIONS 
Queen and 
attendants, Badami 
5 
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 62 
extension of the tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to 
Badami in South India. The sinuously drawn lines, fluid 
forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency 
and maturity the artists had achieved in the sixth century 
CE. The gracefully drawn faces of the king and the queen 
remind us of the style of modelling in Ajanta. Their eye- 
sockets are large, eyes are half-closed, and lips are 
protruding. It is noteworthy to observe that the contours 
of different parts of the face create protruding structures 
of the face itself. Thus, with simple line treatment artists 
could create volume. 
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and 
Chola Kings 
The tradition of painting extended further down south in 
Tamil Nadu in the preceding centuries with regional 
variations during the regimes of Pallava, Pandya and Chola 
dynasties. The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya 
kings in parts of South India, were also patrons of arts. 
Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was 
responsible for building temples at Panamalai, 
Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram. The inscription at 
Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with 
numerous  titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), 
Sittanvasal — early Pandya period, ninth century CE 
LATER MURAL TRADITIONS 63 
Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), Chaityakari (temple 
builder), which show his interest in art activities. The 
paintings in these temples too were done at his initiative, 
though only fragments remain. The Panamalai figure of a 
female divinity is drawn gracefully. Paintings at the 
Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the Pallava king, 
Rajsimha. Only traces of paintings  remain now which 
depict Somaskanda. Faces are round and large. Lines are 
rhythmic with increased ornamentation when compared 
with the paintings of an earlier periods. Depiction of torso 
still remains like the earlier sculptural tradition but is 
elongated. 
When the Pandyas rose to power, they too patronised 
art. Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal 
are some of the surviving examples. A few fragmented 
layers of paintings can be seen in Tirumalaipuram. In 
Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of 
shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets. 
On the pillars of the veranda are seen dancing figures 
of celestial nymphs. The contours of figures are firmly 
drawn and painted in vermilion red on a lighter 
background. The body is rendered in yellow with subtle 
modelling. Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers, 
rhythm in their swaying movement, all speak of the artists’ 
skill in creative imagination in visualising the forms in 
Devi — seventh century CE, Panamalai 
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 64 
the architectural context. Their eyes are slightly elongated 
and at times protrude off the face. This feature is observed 
in many subsequent paintings in the Deccan and South 
India. 
The tradition of building temples and embellishing them 
with carvings and paintings continued during the reign of 
the Chola  kings who ruled over the region from the ninth 
to the thirteenth century. But it was in the eleventh 
century, when the Cholas reached their zenith of power, 
that masterpieces of Chola art and architecture began to 
appear. The temples of Brihadeswara at Thanjavur, 
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram were built 
during the reigns of Rajaraja Chola and his son, Rajendra 
Chola. 
Though Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai, the 
most important are those in Brihadeswara temple. The 
paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage 
surrounding the shrine. Two layers of paint were found 
when they were discovered. The upper layer was painted 
during the Nayak period, in the sixteenth century. Thanks 
to the cleaning of the surface painting, examples of the 
great tradition of painting during the Chola Period were 
unveiled. The paintings show narrations and aspects 
related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as 
Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron 
Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc. 
Vijayanagara Murals 
The paintings of Brihadeswara temple exemplify the 
stylistic maturity the artists evolved over the years.  Sinuous 
pre-determined flow of lines, supple modelling of figures, 
Dakshinamurty, Vijayanagar , Lepakshi 
LATER MURAL TRADITIONS 65 
elongation of the physiognomic features of human figures— 
all these represent the perfection the Chola artist had 
achieved during the period on the one hand and the phase 
of transition on the other. With the decline of power of the 
Chola dynasty in the thirteenth century, the Vijayanagara 
Dynasty captured and brought under its control the region 
from Hampi to Trichy with Hampi serving as its capital. 
Many paintings survive in a number of temples. The 
paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy, done in the 
fourteenth century represent the early phase of the 
Vijayanagara style. In Hampi, the Virupaksha temple has 
paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa narrating events 
from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana 
and the Mahabharata. Among the important panels are the 
ones which show Vidyaranya, the spiritual teacher of 
Bukkaraya Harsha, being carried in a palanquin in a 
procession and the incarnations of Vishnu. The faces of 
the figures are shown in profile, with large frontal eyes. 
The figures have narrow waists. 
In Lepakshi, near Hindupur, in present Andhra Pradesh, 
there are glorious examples of Vijayanagara paintings on 
the walls of the Shiva temple. 
In keeping with the tradition, the Vijayanagara painters 
evolved a pictorial language wherein the faces are shown 
in profile and figures and objects two-dimensionally. Lines 
become still but fluid, compositions appear in rectilinear 
compartments. These stylistic conventions of the preceding 
centuries were adopted by artists in various centres in 
South India as can be seen in the paintings of the Nayaka 
Period. 
Nayaka paintings of the seventeenth and eigtheenth 
centuries are seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and 
Ladies attending Parvati, Virbhadra Temple, Lepakshi