NCERT Textbook: Early Indian Civilization | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

 Page 1


Viewed in terms of geography, the Indian sub-continent
'is a world of its own, extensive yet enclosed by marked
geographical boundaries'.
While geography provides a distinct physical
personality to the Indian sub-continent, and more so
to the Indian mind, the country was never closed to the
world.
A recent survey has indicated that 4,653
communities live in India in a predominantly Hindu
society with a sizeable Muslim population. They include
people professing all the major faiths of the world,
entertaining different notions about the migration of
the soul, speaking several languages and dialects. Each
group has its own distinct folklore, industry and
handicrafts. But India is more than a sum of these.
Jawaharlal Nehru once said, 'India is a cultural unity
amongst diversity, a bundle of contradictions held
together by strong but invisible threads'.
In fact, for the past several millennia, Indians have
developed common traits, thoughts and feelings. These
have given successive generations of Indians a mindset,
a value system, and a way of life, which has been
retained with remarkable continuity. Despite the
passage of time, repeated foreign invasions, and the
enormous growth in population, Indians as well as
people of Indian origin have developed a unique
personality and this will blossom further to unexpected
levels in the coming decades in the era of globalisation
and democracy.
It is not very clear when the Indian mind started
delving into fine arts, poetry, philosophy and science.
? ?
? ? ?
EARLY I NDIAN C IVILISATION
Page 2


Viewed in terms of geography, the Indian sub-continent
'is a world of its own, extensive yet enclosed by marked
geographical boundaries'.
While geography provides a distinct physical
personality to the Indian sub-continent, and more so
to the Indian mind, the country was never closed to the
world.
A recent survey has indicated that 4,653
communities live in India in a predominantly Hindu
society with a sizeable Muslim population. They include
people professing all the major faiths of the world,
entertaining different notions about the migration of
the soul, speaking several languages and dialects. Each
group has its own distinct folklore, industry and
handicrafts. But India is more than a sum of these.
Jawaharlal Nehru once said, 'India is a cultural unity
amongst diversity, a bundle of contradictions held
together by strong but invisible threads'.
In fact, for the past several millennia, Indians have
developed common traits, thoughts and feelings. These
have given successive generations of Indians a mindset,
a value system, and a way of life, which has been
retained with remarkable continuity. Despite the
passage of time, repeated foreign invasions, and the
enormous growth in population, Indians as well as
people of Indian origin have developed a unique
personality and this will blossom further to unexpected
levels in the coming decades in the era of globalisation
and democracy.
It is not very clear when the Indian mind started
delving into fine arts, poetry, philosophy and science.
? ?
? ? ?
EARLY I NDIAN C IVILISATION
OUR I NDIA
16
The myths and legends, cults and
rituals, as well as agricultural
practices and handicrafts indicate
that civilisational attainments in
India commenced 5000 years ago or
during a still earlier age.
The Indus V alley civilisation
provides the beginnings of Indian
historical experience. The
archaeological excavations at various
sites connected with that
civilisation, such as at Mohenjodaro,
Harappa and Dholavira, have amply
proved that there existed a well-
developed city life, irrigation system,
and agricultural operations in India
during this period.
It may be recalled that the
intellectual development of India
during the Vedic Age and the
subsequent development of Vedic
Reservoir at Dholavira, Indus Valley
Civilisation.
Note the masonry work.
culture did not mark a complete break from the
Harappan culture. Archaeologists are of the opinion
that the Vedic and the Dravidian-speaking peoples were
in a 'contact situation' for a long period, perhaps of
centuries, before the compilation of the Rig Veda. In
fact, relics of the Indus Civilisation show the merging
of many cultures and concepts, including the ancient
civilisations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.
Much later, during the Vedic period divine narratives
were pieced together out of subconscious allegory, poetic
symbolism, personification of nature, or worship of
spirits. It is this feature of the Indian mind which is
responsible for the rapid growth of Indian philosophical
pursuits and the development of mathematics and
astronomy.
The beginnings of Indian literature are found in Vedic
hymns in Sanskrit. Early literary forms also include Tamil
Page 3


Viewed in terms of geography, the Indian sub-continent
'is a world of its own, extensive yet enclosed by marked
geographical boundaries'.
While geography provides a distinct physical
personality to the Indian sub-continent, and more so
to the Indian mind, the country was never closed to the
world.
A recent survey has indicated that 4,653
communities live in India in a predominantly Hindu
society with a sizeable Muslim population. They include
people professing all the major faiths of the world,
entertaining different notions about the migration of
the soul, speaking several languages and dialects. Each
group has its own distinct folklore, industry and
handicrafts. But India is more than a sum of these.
Jawaharlal Nehru once said, 'India is a cultural unity
amongst diversity, a bundle of contradictions held
together by strong but invisible threads'.
In fact, for the past several millennia, Indians have
developed common traits, thoughts and feelings. These
have given successive generations of Indians a mindset,
a value system, and a way of life, which has been
retained with remarkable continuity. Despite the
passage of time, repeated foreign invasions, and the
enormous growth in population, Indians as well as
people of Indian origin have developed a unique
personality and this will blossom further to unexpected
levels in the coming decades in the era of globalisation
and democracy.
It is not very clear when the Indian mind started
delving into fine arts, poetry, philosophy and science.
? ?
? ? ?
EARLY I NDIAN C IVILISATION
OUR I NDIA
16
The myths and legends, cults and
rituals, as well as agricultural
practices and handicrafts indicate
that civilisational attainments in
India commenced 5000 years ago or
during a still earlier age.
The Indus V alley civilisation
provides the beginnings of Indian
historical experience. The
archaeological excavations at various
sites connected with that
civilisation, such as at Mohenjodaro,
Harappa and Dholavira, have amply
proved that there existed a well-
developed city life, irrigation system,
and agricultural operations in India
during this period.
It may be recalled that the
intellectual development of India
during the Vedic Age and the
subsequent development of Vedic
Reservoir at Dholavira, Indus Valley
Civilisation.
Note the masonry work.
culture did not mark a complete break from the
Harappan culture. Archaeologists are of the opinion
that the Vedic and the Dravidian-speaking peoples were
in a 'contact situation' for a long period, perhaps of
centuries, before the compilation of the Rig Veda. In
fact, relics of the Indus Civilisation show the merging
of many cultures and concepts, including the ancient
civilisations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.
Much later, during the Vedic period divine narratives
were pieced together out of subconscious allegory, poetic
symbolism, personification of nature, or worship of
spirits. It is this feature of the Indian mind which is
responsible for the rapid growth of Indian philosophical
pursuits and the development of mathematics and
astronomy.
The beginnings of Indian literature are found in Vedic
hymns in Sanskrit. Early literary forms also include Tamil
17
EARLY INDIAN CIVILISATION
verses from the south, Prakrit and Pali tales from the
mainland and tribal lore from the hills and uplands.
Literature in early days was primarily religious.
The most outstanding works of the Vedic period are
the four Vedas – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and
Atharva Veda. The Vedas comprise of a whole body of
literature that arose in the course of centuries and
was transmitted from generation to generation through
oral communication.
The Vedic view of the individual and his relation to
society is determined by four objectives of life:
(a) dharma (ethical living); (b) artha (political economy)
(c) kama (desire and enjoyment); and (d) moksha
(spiritual freedom). Through millennia the core of human
nature has remained the same. Its aspirations continue
to be in the realm of emotions, intellect, material gains,
and spiritual progress and thus are well covered under
the four objects of life as broadly comprehended by
Indian savants.
The Vedas are the world's oldest literature. They
are referred to as shruti (hearing) which is eternal, self-
evident and divinely revealed. The sages had seen and
perceived the Vedic mantras while in a stage of
meditation and contemplation. The entir e Vedic
literature is shruti. On the other hand, we have several
human creations in literature which are known as smriti
(recollection). The Ramayana, the Mahabharata
including the Bhagvad Gita, the Upanishads and
Dharmashastras represent the finest examples of the
smriti tradition. Many scholars view the Upanishads
also as a part of shruti.
Sanskrit became the medium of expression of poets,
authors, and storytellers. T reatises on philosophy,
economics, politics, astronomy, mathematics, science,
town-planning, architecture, music, drama and dance
were written in Sanskrit. Alongside, folk literature
flourished in popular dialects and in languages like
Pali and Prakrit. Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit grew and
Page 4


Viewed in terms of geography, the Indian sub-continent
'is a world of its own, extensive yet enclosed by marked
geographical boundaries'.
While geography provides a distinct physical
personality to the Indian sub-continent, and more so
to the Indian mind, the country was never closed to the
world.
A recent survey has indicated that 4,653
communities live in India in a predominantly Hindu
society with a sizeable Muslim population. They include
people professing all the major faiths of the world,
entertaining different notions about the migration of
the soul, speaking several languages and dialects. Each
group has its own distinct folklore, industry and
handicrafts. But India is more than a sum of these.
Jawaharlal Nehru once said, 'India is a cultural unity
amongst diversity, a bundle of contradictions held
together by strong but invisible threads'.
In fact, for the past several millennia, Indians have
developed common traits, thoughts and feelings. These
have given successive generations of Indians a mindset,
a value system, and a way of life, which has been
retained with remarkable continuity. Despite the
passage of time, repeated foreign invasions, and the
enormous growth in population, Indians as well as
people of Indian origin have developed a unique
personality and this will blossom further to unexpected
levels in the coming decades in the era of globalisation
and democracy.
It is not very clear when the Indian mind started
delving into fine arts, poetry, philosophy and science.
? ?
? ? ?
EARLY I NDIAN C IVILISATION
OUR I NDIA
16
The myths and legends, cults and
rituals, as well as agricultural
practices and handicrafts indicate
that civilisational attainments in
India commenced 5000 years ago or
during a still earlier age.
The Indus V alley civilisation
provides the beginnings of Indian
historical experience. The
archaeological excavations at various
sites connected with that
civilisation, such as at Mohenjodaro,
Harappa and Dholavira, have amply
proved that there existed a well-
developed city life, irrigation system,
and agricultural operations in India
during this period.
It may be recalled that the
intellectual development of India
during the Vedic Age and the
subsequent development of Vedic
Reservoir at Dholavira, Indus Valley
Civilisation.
Note the masonry work.
culture did not mark a complete break from the
Harappan culture. Archaeologists are of the opinion
that the Vedic and the Dravidian-speaking peoples were
in a 'contact situation' for a long period, perhaps of
centuries, before the compilation of the Rig Veda. In
fact, relics of the Indus Civilisation show the merging
of many cultures and concepts, including the ancient
civilisations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.
Much later, during the Vedic period divine narratives
were pieced together out of subconscious allegory, poetic
symbolism, personification of nature, or worship of
spirits. It is this feature of the Indian mind which is
responsible for the rapid growth of Indian philosophical
pursuits and the development of mathematics and
astronomy.
The beginnings of Indian literature are found in Vedic
hymns in Sanskrit. Early literary forms also include Tamil
17
EARLY INDIAN CIVILISATION
verses from the south, Prakrit and Pali tales from the
mainland and tribal lore from the hills and uplands.
Literature in early days was primarily religious.
The most outstanding works of the Vedic period are
the four Vedas – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and
Atharva Veda. The Vedas comprise of a whole body of
literature that arose in the course of centuries and
was transmitted from generation to generation through
oral communication.
The Vedic view of the individual and his relation to
society is determined by four objectives of life:
(a) dharma (ethical living); (b) artha (political economy)
(c) kama (desire and enjoyment); and (d) moksha
(spiritual freedom). Through millennia the core of human
nature has remained the same. Its aspirations continue
to be in the realm of emotions, intellect, material gains,
and spiritual progress and thus are well covered under
the four objects of life as broadly comprehended by
Indian savants.
The Vedas are the world's oldest literature. They
are referred to as shruti (hearing) which is eternal, self-
evident and divinely revealed. The sages had seen and
perceived the Vedic mantras while in a stage of
meditation and contemplation. The entir e Vedic
literature is shruti. On the other hand, we have several
human creations in literature which are known as smriti
(recollection). The Ramayana, the Mahabharata
including the Bhagvad Gita, the Upanishads and
Dharmashastras represent the finest examples of the
smriti tradition. Many scholars view the Upanishads
also as a part of shruti.
Sanskrit became the medium of expression of poets,
authors, and storytellers. T reatises on philosophy,
economics, politics, astronomy, mathematics, science,
town-planning, architecture, music, drama and dance
were written in Sanskrit. Alongside, folk literature
flourished in popular dialects and in languages like
Pali and Prakrit. Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit grew and
OUR I NDIA
18
developed at the same time. Pali became the sacred
language of Buddhism, and Prakrit of Jainism.
Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, have greatly contributed to
the growth of modern Indian languages such as Hindi,
Marathi, Bengali and Assamese, and have enormously
influenced their script, grammar and literature.
There is enough evidence to indicate that from
ancient times India had developed a system of
conferences and free discussions to which specialists
came from all over the country. The summaries of those
conferences were known as samhitas, the compilers
being editors, not authors.
History encompasses the development of human
consciousness, a handing over or easy passage of ideas
and beliefs from one generation to the other . As a
remarkable feat of the conservation of memory, the
Hindus, through the tradition of shruti and smriti have
passed on the Vedas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata,
Krishna advises Arjuna on the battlefield, a
scene from the Bhagavad Gita
This painting dates to eighteenth century.
A terracotta sculpture depicting a scene from
the Mahabharata (West Bengal, c. seventeenth
century).
???????????? ???? ????? ????????????
? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ? ? ?? ???? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ? ?? ????????????? ??? ?????
???????? ???? ??????????????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????????
? ? ????? ??? ?? ? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ? ? ? ??? ???? ? ????????? ?? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ?????????
Page 5


Viewed in terms of geography, the Indian sub-continent
'is a world of its own, extensive yet enclosed by marked
geographical boundaries'.
While geography provides a distinct physical
personality to the Indian sub-continent, and more so
to the Indian mind, the country was never closed to the
world.
A recent survey has indicated that 4,653
communities live in India in a predominantly Hindu
society with a sizeable Muslim population. They include
people professing all the major faiths of the world,
entertaining different notions about the migration of
the soul, speaking several languages and dialects. Each
group has its own distinct folklore, industry and
handicrafts. But India is more than a sum of these.
Jawaharlal Nehru once said, 'India is a cultural unity
amongst diversity, a bundle of contradictions held
together by strong but invisible threads'.
In fact, for the past several millennia, Indians have
developed common traits, thoughts and feelings. These
have given successive generations of Indians a mindset,
a value system, and a way of life, which has been
retained with remarkable continuity. Despite the
passage of time, repeated foreign invasions, and the
enormous growth in population, Indians as well as
people of Indian origin have developed a unique
personality and this will blossom further to unexpected
levels in the coming decades in the era of globalisation
and democracy.
It is not very clear when the Indian mind started
delving into fine arts, poetry, philosophy and science.
? ?
? ? ?
EARLY I NDIAN C IVILISATION
OUR I NDIA
16
The myths and legends, cults and
rituals, as well as agricultural
practices and handicrafts indicate
that civilisational attainments in
India commenced 5000 years ago or
during a still earlier age.
The Indus V alley civilisation
provides the beginnings of Indian
historical experience. The
archaeological excavations at various
sites connected with that
civilisation, such as at Mohenjodaro,
Harappa and Dholavira, have amply
proved that there existed a well-
developed city life, irrigation system,
and agricultural operations in India
during this period.
It may be recalled that the
intellectual development of India
during the Vedic Age and the
subsequent development of Vedic
Reservoir at Dholavira, Indus Valley
Civilisation.
Note the masonry work.
culture did not mark a complete break from the
Harappan culture. Archaeologists are of the opinion
that the Vedic and the Dravidian-speaking peoples were
in a 'contact situation' for a long period, perhaps of
centuries, before the compilation of the Rig Veda. In
fact, relics of the Indus Civilisation show the merging
of many cultures and concepts, including the ancient
civilisations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.
Much later, during the Vedic period divine narratives
were pieced together out of subconscious allegory, poetic
symbolism, personification of nature, or worship of
spirits. It is this feature of the Indian mind which is
responsible for the rapid growth of Indian philosophical
pursuits and the development of mathematics and
astronomy.
The beginnings of Indian literature are found in Vedic
hymns in Sanskrit. Early literary forms also include Tamil
17
EARLY INDIAN CIVILISATION
verses from the south, Prakrit and Pali tales from the
mainland and tribal lore from the hills and uplands.
Literature in early days was primarily religious.
The most outstanding works of the Vedic period are
the four Vedas – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and
Atharva Veda. The Vedas comprise of a whole body of
literature that arose in the course of centuries and
was transmitted from generation to generation through
oral communication.
The Vedic view of the individual and his relation to
society is determined by four objectives of life:
(a) dharma (ethical living); (b) artha (political economy)
(c) kama (desire and enjoyment); and (d) moksha
(spiritual freedom). Through millennia the core of human
nature has remained the same. Its aspirations continue
to be in the realm of emotions, intellect, material gains,
and spiritual progress and thus are well covered under
the four objects of life as broadly comprehended by
Indian savants.
The Vedas are the world's oldest literature. They
are referred to as shruti (hearing) which is eternal, self-
evident and divinely revealed. The sages had seen and
perceived the Vedic mantras while in a stage of
meditation and contemplation. The entir e Vedic
literature is shruti. On the other hand, we have several
human creations in literature which are known as smriti
(recollection). The Ramayana, the Mahabharata
including the Bhagvad Gita, the Upanishads and
Dharmashastras represent the finest examples of the
smriti tradition. Many scholars view the Upanishads
also as a part of shruti.
Sanskrit became the medium of expression of poets,
authors, and storytellers. T reatises on philosophy,
economics, politics, astronomy, mathematics, science,
town-planning, architecture, music, drama and dance
were written in Sanskrit. Alongside, folk literature
flourished in popular dialects and in languages like
Pali and Prakrit. Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit grew and
OUR I NDIA
18
developed at the same time. Pali became the sacred
language of Buddhism, and Prakrit of Jainism.
Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, have greatly contributed to
the growth of modern Indian languages such as Hindi,
Marathi, Bengali and Assamese, and have enormously
influenced their script, grammar and literature.
There is enough evidence to indicate that from
ancient times India had developed a system of
conferences and free discussions to which specialists
came from all over the country. The summaries of those
conferences were known as samhitas, the compilers
being editors, not authors.
History encompasses the development of human
consciousness, a handing over or easy passage of ideas
and beliefs from one generation to the other . As a
remarkable feat of the conservation of memory, the
Hindus, through the tradition of shruti and smriti have
passed on the Vedas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata,
Krishna advises Arjuna on the battlefield, a
scene from the Bhagavad Gita
This painting dates to eighteenth century.
A terracotta sculpture depicting a scene from
the Mahabharata (West Bengal, c. seventeenth
century).
???????????? ???? ????? ????????????
? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ? ? ?? ???? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ? ?? ????????????? ??? ?????
???????? ???? ??????????????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????????
? ? ????? ??? ?? ? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ? ? ? ??? ???? ? ????????? ?? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ?????????
19
EARLY INDIAN CIVILISATION
the Bhagvad Gita and other sacred texts to the present
day. This remarkable aspect of historical consciousness
of the early Indians was highlighted by Rabindranath
Tagore in his paper, 'A Vision of Indian History', where
he writes:
I love India, not because I cultivate the idolatry of geography, not
because I have had the chance to be born in her soil, but because
she has saved through tumultuous ages the living words that
have issued from the illuminated consciousness of her great sons.
Where lies the genius of India? W estern writers
deeply impressed by the metaphysical bent of the Indian
mind and by their strong religious instincts and
proclivities have viewed the Indian genius as largely
concerned with the other world, as dreaming and
running away from life. But this is far from correct. As
Sri Aurobindo rightly observes:
Spirituality is indeed the master-key of the Indian mind;
the sense of the indefinite is native to it. India saw
from the beginning, and, even in her ages of reason and
her age of increasing ignorance, she never lost hold of
the insight, that life cannot be rightly seen in the sole
light, cannot be perfectly lived in the sole power of its
externalities. She was alive to the greatness of material
laws and forces; she had a keen eye for the importance
of the physical sciences; she knew how to organize the
arts of ordinary life. But she saw that the physical does
not get its full sense until it stands in right relation to
the supra-physical; she saw that the complexity of the
universe could not be explained in the present terms of
man or seen by his superficial sight, that there were
other powers behind, other powers within man himself
of which he is normally unaware, that he is conscious
only of  small part of himself, that the invisible always
surrounds the visible, the supra-sensible the sensible,
even as infinity always surrounds the finite.
It is thus not surprising that during the period of
recorded global history of the past 2500 years India
was a major power for about 1400 years not only during
the ancient period but also in the Mughal era. This
became amply clear during the reign of Emperor Akbar
(1542-1605).
Sri Aurobindo
(1872-1950)