World History - Renaissance A.R., F.R. & Napoleon- III | History for UPSC 2024 (Pre & Mains) PDF Download

 Page 1


The War 
Continues
• The National Convention had reduced Louis XVI’s role from that of 
a king to that of a common citizen and prisoner. 
• Now, guided by radical Jacobins, it tried Louis for treason. The 
Convention found him guilty, and, by a very close vote, sentenced 
him to death. 
• On January 21, 1793, the former king walked with calm dignity up 
the steps of the scaffold to be beheaded by guillotine.
• At about the time the Convention took office, the French army 
won a stunning victory against the Austrians and Prussians at the 
Battle of Valmy. 
• Early in 1793, however, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain joined 
Prussia and Austria against France. 
• Forced to contend with so many enemies, the French suffered a 
string of defeats. 
• To reinforce the French army, Jacobin leaders in the Convention 
took an extreme step. 
• At their urging, in February 1793 the Convention ordered a draft 
of 300,000 French citizens between the ages of 18 and 40. By 
1794, the army had grown to 800,000 and included women.
Page 2


The War 
Continues
• The National Convention had reduced Louis XVI’s role from that of 
a king to that of a common citizen and prisoner. 
• Now, guided by radical Jacobins, it tried Louis for treason. The 
Convention found him guilty, and, by a very close vote, sentenced 
him to death. 
• On January 21, 1793, the former king walked with calm dignity up 
the steps of the scaffold to be beheaded by guillotine.
• At about the time the Convention took office, the French army 
won a stunning victory against the Austrians and Prussians at the 
Battle of Valmy. 
• Early in 1793, however, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain joined 
Prussia and Austria against France. 
• Forced to contend with so many enemies, the French suffered a 
string of defeats. 
• To reinforce the French army, Jacobin leaders in the Convention 
took an extreme step. 
• At their urging, in February 1793 the Convention ordered a draft 
of 300,000 French citizens between the ages of 18 and 40. By 
1794, the army had grown to 800,000 and included women.
The Terror 
Grips France
• Foreign armies were not the only enemies of the French republic. 
The Jacobins had thousands of enemies within France itself. 
• These included peasants who were horrified by the king’s 
execution, priests who would not accept government control, and 
rival leaders who were stirring up rebellion in the provinces.
• Robespierre Assumes Control In the early months of 1793, one 
Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, slowly gained power. 
Robespierre and his supporters set out to build a “republic of 
virtue” by wiping out every trace of France’s past.
• In July 1793, Robespierre became leader of the Committee of 
Public Safety. For the next year, Robespierre governed France 
virtually as a dictator, and the period of his rule became known 
as the Reign of Terror. The Committee of Public Safety’s chief task 
was to protect the Revolution from its enemies. 
• Under Robespierre’s leadership, the committee often had these 
“enemies” tried in the morning and guillotined in the afternoon. 
Robespierre justified his use of terror by suggesting that it 
enabled French citizens to remain true to the ideals of the 
Revolution
• The “enemies of the Revolution” who troubled Robespierre the 
most were fellow radicals who challenged his leadership.
Page 3


The War 
Continues
• The National Convention had reduced Louis XVI’s role from that of 
a king to that of a common citizen and prisoner. 
• Now, guided by radical Jacobins, it tried Louis for treason. The 
Convention found him guilty, and, by a very close vote, sentenced 
him to death. 
• On January 21, 1793, the former king walked with calm dignity up 
the steps of the scaffold to be beheaded by guillotine.
• At about the time the Convention took office, the French army 
won a stunning victory against the Austrians and Prussians at the 
Battle of Valmy. 
• Early in 1793, however, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain joined 
Prussia and Austria against France. 
• Forced to contend with so many enemies, the French suffered a 
string of defeats. 
• To reinforce the French army, Jacobin leaders in the Convention 
took an extreme step. 
• At their urging, in February 1793 the Convention ordered a draft 
of 300,000 French citizens between the ages of 18 and 40. By 
1794, the army had grown to 800,000 and included women.
The Terror 
Grips France
• Foreign armies were not the only enemies of the French republic. 
The Jacobins had thousands of enemies within France itself. 
• These included peasants who were horrified by the king’s 
execution, priests who would not accept government control, and 
rival leaders who were stirring up rebellion in the provinces.
• Robespierre Assumes Control In the early months of 1793, one 
Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, slowly gained power. 
Robespierre and his supporters set out to build a “republic of 
virtue” by wiping out every trace of France’s past.
• In July 1793, Robespierre became leader of the Committee of 
Public Safety. For the next year, Robespierre governed France 
virtually as a dictator, and the period of his rule became known 
as the Reign of Terror. The Committee of Public Safety’s chief task 
was to protect the Revolution from its enemies. 
• Under Robespierre’s leadership, the committee often had these 
“enemies” tried in the morning and guillotined in the afternoon. 
Robespierre justified his use of terror by suggesting that it 
enabled French citizens to remain true to the ideals of the 
Revolution
• The “enemies of the Revolution” who troubled Robespierre the 
most were fellow radicals who challenged his leadership.
End of the 
Terror 
• In 1793 and 1794, many of those who had led the Revolution 
received death sentences.
• As many as 40,000 were executed during the Terror. About 85 
percent were peasants or members of the urban poor or middle 
class— for whose benefit the Revolution had been launched
• In July 1794, fearing for their own safety, some members of the 
National Convention turned on Robespierre. 
• They demanded his arrest and execution. The Reign of Terror, the 
radical phase of the French Revolution, ended on July 28, 1794, 
when Robespierre went to the guillotine.
• French public opinion shifted dramatically after Robespierre’s 
death. People of all classes had grown weary of the Terror.
• In 1795, moderate leaders in the National Convention drafted a 
new plan of government, the third since 1789. 
• It placed power firmly in the hands of the upper middle class and 
called for a two-house legislature and an executive body of five 
men, known as the Directory. These five were moderates, not 
revolutionary idealists.
• Some of them were corrupt and made themselves rich at the 
country’s expense. Even so, they gave their troubled country a 
period of order. They also found the right general to command 
France’s armies—Napoleon Bonaparte.
Page 4


The War 
Continues
• The National Convention had reduced Louis XVI’s role from that of 
a king to that of a common citizen and prisoner. 
• Now, guided by radical Jacobins, it tried Louis for treason. The 
Convention found him guilty, and, by a very close vote, sentenced 
him to death. 
• On January 21, 1793, the former king walked with calm dignity up 
the steps of the scaffold to be beheaded by guillotine.
• At about the time the Convention took office, the French army 
won a stunning victory against the Austrians and Prussians at the 
Battle of Valmy. 
• Early in 1793, however, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain joined 
Prussia and Austria against France. 
• Forced to contend with so many enemies, the French suffered a 
string of defeats. 
• To reinforce the French army, Jacobin leaders in the Convention 
took an extreme step. 
• At their urging, in February 1793 the Convention ordered a draft 
of 300,000 French citizens between the ages of 18 and 40. By 
1794, the army had grown to 800,000 and included women.
The Terror 
Grips France
• Foreign armies were not the only enemies of the French republic. 
The Jacobins had thousands of enemies within France itself. 
• These included peasants who were horrified by the king’s 
execution, priests who would not accept government control, and 
rival leaders who were stirring up rebellion in the provinces.
• Robespierre Assumes Control In the early months of 1793, one 
Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, slowly gained power. 
Robespierre and his supporters set out to build a “republic of 
virtue” by wiping out every trace of France’s past.
• In July 1793, Robespierre became leader of the Committee of 
Public Safety. For the next year, Robespierre governed France 
virtually as a dictator, and the period of his rule became known 
as the Reign of Terror. The Committee of Public Safety’s chief task 
was to protect the Revolution from its enemies. 
• Under Robespierre’s leadership, the committee often had these 
“enemies” tried in the morning and guillotined in the afternoon. 
Robespierre justified his use of terror by suggesting that it 
enabled French citizens to remain true to the ideals of the 
Revolution
• The “enemies of the Revolution” who troubled Robespierre the 
most were fellow radicals who challenged his leadership.
End of the 
Terror 
• In 1793 and 1794, many of those who had led the Revolution 
received death sentences.
• As many as 40,000 were executed during the Terror. About 85 
percent were peasants or members of the urban poor or middle 
class— for whose benefit the Revolution had been launched
• In July 1794, fearing for their own safety, some members of the 
National Convention turned on Robespierre. 
• They demanded his arrest and execution. The Reign of Terror, the 
radical phase of the French Revolution, ended on July 28, 1794, 
when Robespierre went to the guillotine.
• French public opinion shifted dramatically after Robespierre’s 
death. People of all classes had grown weary of the Terror.
• In 1795, moderate leaders in the National Convention drafted a 
new plan of government, the third since 1789. 
• It placed power firmly in the hands of the upper middle class and 
called for a two-house legislature and an executive body of five 
men, known as the Directory. These five were moderates, not 
revolutionary idealists.
• Some of them were corrupt and made themselves rich at the 
country’s expense. Even so, they gave their troubled country a 
period of order. They also found the right general to command 
France’s armies—Napoleon Bonaparte.
Hero of the 
Hour 
• In October 1795, fate handed the young officer a chance for glory. 
• When royalist rebels marched on the National Convention, a 
government official told Napoleon to defend the delegates. Napoleon 
and his gunners greeted the thousands of royalists with a cannonade. 
• Within minutes, the attackers fled in panic and confusion. Napoleon 
Bonaparte became the hero of the hour and was hailed throughout 
Paris as the savior of the French republic.
• In 1796, the Directory appointed Napoleon to lead a French army 
against the forces of Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Crossing 
the Alps, the young general swept into Italy and won a series of 
remarkable victories.
• Next, in an attempt to protect French trade interests and to disrupt 
British trade with India, Napoleon led an expedition to Egypt. But he 
was unable to repeat the successes he had achieved in Europe. His 
army was pinned down in Egypt. 
• However, Napoleon managed to keep stories about his setbacks out 
of the newspapers and thereby remained a great hero to the people 
of France
Page 5


The War 
Continues
• The National Convention had reduced Louis XVI’s role from that of 
a king to that of a common citizen and prisoner. 
• Now, guided by radical Jacobins, it tried Louis for treason. The 
Convention found him guilty, and, by a very close vote, sentenced 
him to death. 
• On January 21, 1793, the former king walked with calm dignity up 
the steps of the scaffold to be beheaded by guillotine.
• At about the time the Convention took office, the French army 
won a stunning victory against the Austrians and Prussians at the 
Battle of Valmy. 
• Early in 1793, however, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain joined 
Prussia and Austria against France. 
• Forced to contend with so many enemies, the French suffered a 
string of defeats. 
• To reinforce the French army, Jacobin leaders in the Convention 
took an extreme step. 
• At their urging, in February 1793 the Convention ordered a draft 
of 300,000 French citizens between the ages of 18 and 40. By 
1794, the army had grown to 800,000 and included women.
The Terror 
Grips France
• Foreign armies were not the only enemies of the French republic. 
The Jacobins had thousands of enemies within France itself. 
• These included peasants who were horrified by the king’s 
execution, priests who would not accept government control, and 
rival leaders who were stirring up rebellion in the provinces.
• Robespierre Assumes Control In the early months of 1793, one 
Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, slowly gained power. 
Robespierre and his supporters set out to build a “republic of 
virtue” by wiping out every trace of France’s past.
• In July 1793, Robespierre became leader of the Committee of 
Public Safety. For the next year, Robespierre governed France 
virtually as a dictator, and the period of his rule became known 
as the Reign of Terror. The Committee of Public Safety’s chief task 
was to protect the Revolution from its enemies. 
• Under Robespierre’s leadership, the committee often had these 
“enemies” tried in the morning and guillotined in the afternoon. 
Robespierre justified his use of terror by suggesting that it 
enabled French citizens to remain true to the ideals of the 
Revolution
• The “enemies of the Revolution” who troubled Robespierre the 
most were fellow radicals who challenged his leadership.
End of the 
Terror 
• In 1793 and 1794, many of those who had led the Revolution 
received death sentences.
• As many as 40,000 were executed during the Terror. About 85 
percent were peasants or members of the urban poor or middle 
class— for whose benefit the Revolution had been launched
• In July 1794, fearing for their own safety, some members of the 
National Convention turned on Robespierre. 
• They demanded his arrest and execution. The Reign of Terror, the 
radical phase of the French Revolution, ended on July 28, 1794, 
when Robespierre went to the guillotine.
• French public opinion shifted dramatically after Robespierre’s 
death. People of all classes had grown weary of the Terror.
• In 1795, moderate leaders in the National Convention drafted a 
new plan of government, the third since 1789. 
• It placed power firmly in the hands of the upper middle class and 
called for a two-house legislature and an executive body of five 
men, known as the Directory. These five were moderates, not 
revolutionary idealists.
• Some of them were corrupt and made themselves rich at the 
country’s expense. Even so, they gave their troubled country a 
period of order. They also found the right general to command 
France’s armies—Napoleon Bonaparte.
Hero of the 
Hour 
• In October 1795, fate handed the young officer a chance for glory. 
• When royalist rebels marched on the National Convention, a 
government official told Napoleon to defend the delegates. Napoleon 
and his gunners greeted the thousands of royalists with a cannonade. 
• Within minutes, the attackers fled in panic and confusion. Napoleon 
Bonaparte became the hero of the hour and was hailed throughout 
Paris as the savior of the French republic.
• In 1796, the Directory appointed Napoleon to lead a French army 
against the forces of Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Crossing 
the Alps, the young general swept into Italy and won a series of 
remarkable victories.
• Next, in an attempt to protect French trade interests and to disrupt 
British trade with India, Napoleon led an expedition to Egypt. But he 
was unable to repeat the successes he had achieved in Europe. His 
army was pinned down in Egypt. 
• However, Napoleon managed to keep stories about his setbacks out 
of the newspapers and thereby remained a great hero to the people 
of France
Coup d'état
• By 1799, the Directory had lost control of the political situation and 
the confidence of the French people. 
• When Napoleon returned from Egypt, his friends urged him to seize 
political power. Napoleon took action in early November 1799. 
• Troops under his command surrounded the national legislature and 
drove out most of its members. 
• The lawmakers who remained then voted to dissolve the Directory. 
In its place, they established a group of three consuls, one of whom 
was Napoleon. Napoleon quickly took the title of first consul and 
assumed the powers of a dictator. 
• At the time of Napoleon’s coup, France was still at war. 
• In 1799, Britain, Austria, and Russia joined forces with one goal in 
mind, to drive Napoleon from power. 
• Once again, Napoleon rode from Paris at the head of his troops. 
Eventually, as a result of war and diplomacy, all three nations signed 
peace agreements with France. 
• By 1802, Europe was at peace for the first time in ten years. 
Napoleon was free to focus his energies on restoring order in France