Notes: Religion & Society | Sociology Mains Optional for UPSC 2024 PDF Download

 Page 1


 
Religion and Society: 
 
a. Sociological theories of religion. 
b. Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults. 
c. Religion in modern society: religion and science, secularization, religious revivalism, 
fundamentalism. 
 
Religion - 
Ronald Robertson - It refers to the existence of Supernatural beings which have a governing effect on life. 
 
But, according to Malcolm Hamilton certain belief systems such as Buddhism don’t contain a belief in supernatural 
beings. 
Thus, defining religion is a tough and complex task. 
 
Evolutionlists  
Tried to explain religion in terms of human needs. 
August Comte – animism, polytheism, monotheism  
Durkheim – From totemic practices to present day complex religions 
Edward Tylor -religion is a response to man's intellectual needs  
Max Muller - religion is a response to man’s emotional needs  
 
Functionalist –  
Yinger – A system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of the 
life. 
(Problems with the definition – 
- It includes wide variety of belief systems, Communism 
- Assumes certain roles of the religion which may vary with society and time 
- “ultimate problem” are subjectively interpreted 
- Many other aspects address problems, like medicine and leisure) 
 
Changes the emphasis from human to society's needs. 
Society requires a certain degree of social solidarity, value consensus, harmony and integration.  
The function of religion is the contribution it makes to meetings such functional prerequisites  
Examples  
 
Durkheim – Sacred and Profane. 
- Totemism – Material representation of non-material force. 
- Sacred – Produces awe, veneration and respect. Greater power to direct human beings. 
Page 2


 
Religion and Society: 
 
a. Sociological theories of religion. 
b. Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults. 
c. Religion in modern society: religion and science, secularization, religious revivalism, 
fundamentalism. 
 
Religion - 
Ronald Robertson - It refers to the existence of Supernatural beings which have a governing effect on life. 
 
But, according to Malcolm Hamilton certain belief systems such as Buddhism don’t contain a belief in supernatural 
beings. 
Thus, defining religion is a tough and complex task. 
 
Evolutionlists  
Tried to explain religion in terms of human needs. 
August Comte – animism, polytheism, monotheism  
Durkheim – From totemic practices to present day complex religions 
Edward Tylor -religion is a response to man's intellectual needs  
Max Muller - religion is a response to man’s emotional needs  
 
Functionalist –  
Yinger – A system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of the 
life. 
(Problems with the definition – 
- It includes wide variety of belief systems, Communism 
- Assumes certain roles of the religion which may vary with society and time 
- “ultimate problem” are subjectively interpreted 
- Many other aspects address problems, like medicine and leisure) 
 
Changes the emphasis from human to society's needs. 
Society requires a certain degree of social solidarity, value consensus, harmony and integration.  
The function of religion is the contribution it makes to meetings such functional prerequisites  
Examples  
 
Durkheim – Sacred and Profane. 
- Totemism – Material representation of non-material force. 
- Sacred – Produces awe, veneration and respect. Greater power to direct human beings. 
 
- Profane – Does not. 
Collective worship, integaration of society. 
Worshipping Ancestors – nothing but propagating Social Values. 
But modern life religious objects are often not treated with respect. 
Durkheim Criticism –  
- Generalised on the basis of one aborigine group only 
- Data has doubtful validity 
- Relevant in small, non-literate society. Less in modern, multi-cultural society. 
- Overstates religion as keeper of collective conscience. Sometimes religion with loggerheads with societal values. 
 
Malinowski – Trobrian Islands, New Guinea.  
Religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional stress that threaten the stability of society 
 
Parsons – Religion gives norms, that control human action. Religon helps provide the consensus that he believes is 
necessary for order and stability in Society 
 
Criticism  
Status Quoist 
It ignore the dysfunctions of religion.  
Many instances where it is seen as a divisive or disruptive force. 
Little consideration to hostilities between religions. 
 
Marxist –  
Religion is an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression (opiate of the masses). 
It makes life bearable and dilutes demand for change. 
Acts as a mechanism of social control and promoting dominating ideologies by maintaining the existing system of 
exploitation, reinforcing class relationships.  
Ex caste system in India justified by Hindu religious beliefs, divine right theory in medieval Europe. 
 
Criticism- 
Religion does not always legitimate power 
It can sometimes provide an impetus for change. 
Religion did not die out in Communism as Marx predicted. 
 
Engles   
Social change –  role played by religion in effecting revolutionary social change (early Christian sects that opposed Roman 
Rule) 
 
Page 3


 
Religion and Society: 
 
a. Sociological theories of religion. 
b. Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults. 
c. Religion in modern society: religion and science, secularization, religious revivalism, 
fundamentalism. 
 
Religion - 
Ronald Robertson - It refers to the existence of Supernatural beings which have a governing effect on life. 
 
But, according to Malcolm Hamilton certain belief systems such as Buddhism don’t contain a belief in supernatural 
beings. 
Thus, defining religion is a tough and complex task. 
 
Evolutionlists  
Tried to explain religion in terms of human needs. 
August Comte – animism, polytheism, monotheism  
Durkheim – From totemic practices to present day complex religions 
Edward Tylor -religion is a response to man's intellectual needs  
Max Muller - religion is a response to man’s emotional needs  
 
Functionalist –  
Yinger – A system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of the 
life. 
(Problems with the definition – 
- It includes wide variety of belief systems, Communism 
- Assumes certain roles of the religion which may vary with society and time 
- “ultimate problem” are subjectively interpreted 
- Many other aspects address problems, like medicine and leisure) 
 
Changes the emphasis from human to society's needs. 
Society requires a certain degree of social solidarity, value consensus, harmony and integration.  
The function of religion is the contribution it makes to meetings such functional prerequisites  
Examples  
 
Durkheim – Sacred and Profane. 
- Totemism – Material representation of non-material force. 
- Sacred – Produces awe, veneration and respect. Greater power to direct human beings. 
 
- Profane – Does not. 
Collective worship, integaration of society. 
Worshipping Ancestors – nothing but propagating Social Values. 
But modern life religious objects are often not treated with respect. 
Durkheim Criticism –  
- Generalised on the basis of one aborigine group only 
- Data has doubtful validity 
- Relevant in small, non-literate society. Less in modern, multi-cultural society. 
- Overstates religion as keeper of collective conscience. Sometimes religion with loggerheads with societal values. 
 
Malinowski – Trobrian Islands, New Guinea.  
Religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional stress that threaten the stability of society 
 
Parsons – Religion gives norms, that control human action. Religon helps provide the consensus that he believes is 
necessary for order and stability in Society 
 
Criticism  
Status Quoist 
It ignore the dysfunctions of religion.  
Many instances where it is seen as a divisive or disruptive force. 
Little consideration to hostilities between religions. 
 
Marxist –  
Religion is an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression (opiate of the masses). 
It makes life bearable and dilutes demand for change. 
Acts as a mechanism of social control and promoting dominating ideologies by maintaining the existing system of 
exploitation, reinforcing class relationships.  
Ex caste system in India justified by Hindu religious beliefs, divine right theory in medieval Europe. 
 
Criticism- 
Religion does not always legitimate power 
It can sometimes provide an impetus for change. 
Religion did not die out in Communism as Marx predicted. 
 
Engles   
Social change –  role played by religion in effecting revolutionary social change (early Christian sects that opposed Roman 
Rule) 
 
 
Neo-Marxists 
Otto Maduro - relative autonomy of religion 
He believes that members of clergy can develop revolutionary potential where oppressed members have no outlet for 
grievances and can pressurize the priests to take up their cause. 
These conditions led to the development of Liberation Theology. 
 
Bryan Turner has talked about changing roles of religion in modern society, where religion is also promoting consumerism 
in youth. 
 
Feminist perspective  
Religion is a product of patriarchy. An instrument of domination and oppression. 
Giddens -  Christian religion is a resolutely male affair. God is the father, a male figure. 
Karen Armstrong – All major religions a male affair. Women have been relegated to marginal positions. 
Jean Holm – Women do have some role in religion, but it is always subordinate and in private sphere. 
 
Mary Daly – Religious language, images need to be changed. They perpetuate the sexist world. 
Nawal El Saadawi – The hidden face of eve – Religion only one aspect of wider patriarchal system, which needs to be 
overthrown by struggle. 
 
Simone De Beauvoir – Book “The second Sex” – Women do much of the work for religious organizations, introduce 
children to religious beliefs, yet are exploited by religion. So, there must be a religion for women. 
Carol Christ – Thea-logy, replacing theology. Thea means Goddess. 
Rational Choice Theories 
Religion is seen in similar terms to a market in which individual consumer choices are important in determining whether a 
particular religion is successful or not. Consumers of religions have choices to choose a religion. It rejects Secularism. 
 
Stark and Bainbridge – Religion and Compensators theory.  
 
Compensator – a belief that a reward will be obtained in a distant future or in some other context which cannot be verified. 
Compensator brings in the idea of supernatural. 
 
On Secularism – It is not there. Because religion answers universal questions and its compensators meet universal 
human needs. There is increasing religious pluralism as people have sought new sources of compensators. 
 
Criticisms- 
Steve Bruce – That there is decreasing belief in religious values. That secularization is taking place. 
Religious pluralism is leading to lower numbers of church memberships. 
 
Page 4


 
Religion and Society: 
 
a. Sociological theories of religion. 
b. Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults. 
c. Religion in modern society: religion and science, secularization, religious revivalism, 
fundamentalism. 
 
Religion - 
Ronald Robertson - It refers to the existence of Supernatural beings which have a governing effect on life. 
 
But, according to Malcolm Hamilton certain belief systems such as Buddhism don’t contain a belief in supernatural 
beings. 
Thus, defining religion is a tough and complex task. 
 
Evolutionlists  
Tried to explain religion in terms of human needs. 
August Comte – animism, polytheism, monotheism  
Durkheim – From totemic practices to present day complex religions 
Edward Tylor -religion is a response to man's intellectual needs  
Max Muller - religion is a response to man’s emotional needs  
 
Functionalist –  
Yinger – A system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of the 
life. 
(Problems with the definition – 
- It includes wide variety of belief systems, Communism 
- Assumes certain roles of the religion which may vary with society and time 
- “ultimate problem” are subjectively interpreted 
- Many other aspects address problems, like medicine and leisure) 
 
Changes the emphasis from human to society's needs. 
Society requires a certain degree of social solidarity, value consensus, harmony and integration.  
The function of religion is the contribution it makes to meetings such functional prerequisites  
Examples  
 
Durkheim – Sacred and Profane. 
- Totemism – Material representation of non-material force. 
- Sacred – Produces awe, veneration and respect. Greater power to direct human beings. 
 
- Profane – Does not. 
Collective worship, integaration of society. 
Worshipping Ancestors – nothing but propagating Social Values. 
But modern life religious objects are often not treated with respect. 
Durkheim Criticism –  
- Generalised on the basis of one aborigine group only 
- Data has doubtful validity 
- Relevant in small, non-literate society. Less in modern, multi-cultural society. 
- Overstates religion as keeper of collective conscience. Sometimes religion with loggerheads with societal values. 
 
Malinowski – Trobrian Islands, New Guinea.  
Religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional stress that threaten the stability of society 
 
Parsons – Religion gives norms, that control human action. Religon helps provide the consensus that he believes is 
necessary for order and stability in Society 
 
Criticism  
Status Quoist 
It ignore the dysfunctions of religion.  
Many instances where it is seen as a divisive or disruptive force. 
Little consideration to hostilities between religions. 
 
Marxist –  
Religion is an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression (opiate of the masses). 
It makes life bearable and dilutes demand for change. 
Acts as a mechanism of social control and promoting dominating ideologies by maintaining the existing system of 
exploitation, reinforcing class relationships.  
Ex caste system in India justified by Hindu religious beliefs, divine right theory in medieval Europe. 
 
Criticism- 
Religion does not always legitimate power 
It can sometimes provide an impetus for change. 
Religion did not die out in Communism as Marx predicted. 
 
Engles   
Social change –  role played by religion in effecting revolutionary social change (early Christian sects that opposed Roman 
Rule) 
 
 
Neo-Marxists 
Otto Maduro - relative autonomy of religion 
He believes that members of clergy can develop revolutionary potential where oppressed members have no outlet for 
grievances and can pressurize the priests to take up their cause. 
These conditions led to the development of Liberation Theology. 
 
Bryan Turner has talked about changing roles of religion in modern society, where religion is also promoting consumerism 
in youth. 
 
Feminist perspective  
Religion is a product of patriarchy. An instrument of domination and oppression. 
Giddens -  Christian religion is a resolutely male affair. God is the father, a male figure. 
Karen Armstrong – All major religions a male affair. Women have been relegated to marginal positions. 
Jean Holm – Women do have some role in religion, but it is always subordinate and in private sphere. 
 
Mary Daly – Religious language, images need to be changed. They perpetuate the sexist world. 
Nawal El Saadawi – The hidden face of eve – Religion only one aspect of wider patriarchal system, which needs to be 
overthrown by struggle. 
 
Simone De Beauvoir – Book “The second Sex” – Women do much of the work for religious organizations, introduce 
children to religious beliefs, yet are exploited by religion. So, there must be a religion for women. 
Carol Christ – Thea-logy, replacing theology. Thea means Goddess. 
Rational Choice Theories 
Religion is seen in similar terms to a market in which individual consumer choices are important in determining whether a 
particular religion is successful or not. Consumers of religions have choices to choose a religion. It rejects Secularism. 
 
Stark and Bainbridge – Religion and Compensators theory.  
 
Compensator – a belief that a reward will be obtained in a distant future or in some other context which cannot be verified. 
Compensator brings in the idea of supernatural. 
 
On Secularism – It is not there. Because religion answers universal questions and its compensators meet universal 
human needs. There is increasing religious pluralism as people have sought new sources of compensators. 
 
Criticisms- 
Steve Bruce – That there is decreasing belief in religious values. That secularization is taking place. 
Religious pluralism is leading to lower numbers of church memberships. 
 
 
Max Weber linked religion with social change (PE&SC) 
Critics -