Kurukshetra Magazine July 2022 - 2 | Monthly Yojana & Kurukshetra Magazine (English) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


Kurukshetra      July  2022 15
lobal consumption of water is doubling 
every 20 years. This consumption growth 
is more than twice the rate of human 
population growth. Mismanagement and 
unsustainable use of water and a blind eye on used 
water (that we so naively call wastewater) is making 
the whole situation environmentally uncomfortable 
for India and the world. Most of the rain falling on 
the surface runs off rapidly, leaving very little for the 
recharge of groundwater. This has become starker 
with erratic monsoons owing to climate change. 
Nature has gifted India with extraordinarily rich 
endowment of diverse and distinctive water bodies. 
Our ancestors had designed and developed hundreds 
of water harvesting systems in different parts of the 
country. They may have different names like johads, 
ahars, bawdis, talabs, vavs, eris, and others. But 
their underlying theme has remained same “save 
water with public participation”. These traditional 
water-harvesting systems had played an important 
role in maintaining and restoring the ecological 
balance. Till this day these bodies act as a source 
of drinking water, an instrument for recharging 
groundwater, a reliable system to control floods, a 
resource supporting biodiversity, and a contributor 
of livelihood opportunities to many people.
Water is a simple chemical molecule 
made of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms, but its 
interaction with living earthlings is complex; 
because of diversified geological formations, 
complexity in tectonic framework, climatic 
variations and changing hydro-chemical 
environments. Burgeoning human population 
and its greed to exploit water by infinite 
means have made this interaction precarious. 
Natural replenishment of groundwater 
reservoir takes place slowly. At present 
it is unable to keep pace with excessive, 
Yugal Joshi
There is huge pressure to conserve the water, keeping it clean, and to protect, harness, improvise and sustain all that 
wonderful water conservation knowledge employed by our forefathers since millennia. An integrated approach taking into 
account the long-term sustainability, starting from the planning stage where looking at every water-body along with its 
catchment, is required. Unless, we don’t involve the local people, the revival of traditional water conservation systems and 
bodies will be unsuccessful. All traditional systems survived because of people’s active participation. 
Traditional Knowledge in Water Conservation
unmindful and continued exploitation of 
groundwater resources. As a result, in various parts 
of the country groundwater levels have slipped 
down rapidly and groundwater resources have 
depleted.
Overuse of water for agriculture and the 
inability of urban/ rural areas to increase efficient 
treatment of their used water have further limited 
repletion of groundwater resources. Falling 
groundwater levels, deteriorating groundwater 
quality and pollution of surface water bodies –these 
three have combined together to further aggravate 
an already alarming situation. Ever growing 
industrial requirements for quantity and quality of 
water and at the same time, their poor record in 
treating the effluent and recharging the aquifers, 
have made policymakers restless. The source 
sustainability has become the most important thing 
to be ensured. 
In view of above, there is huge pressure to 
conserve the water, keeping it clean and to protect, 
harness, improvise and sustain all that wonderful 
water conservation knowledge employed by our 
forefathers since millennia.  
G
Page 2


Kurukshetra      July  2022 15
lobal consumption of water is doubling 
every 20 years. This consumption growth 
is more than twice the rate of human 
population growth. Mismanagement and 
unsustainable use of water and a blind eye on used 
water (that we so naively call wastewater) is making 
the whole situation environmentally uncomfortable 
for India and the world. Most of the rain falling on 
the surface runs off rapidly, leaving very little for the 
recharge of groundwater. This has become starker 
with erratic monsoons owing to climate change. 
Nature has gifted India with extraordinarily rich 
endowment of diverse and distinctive water bodies. 
Our ancestors had designed and developed hundreds 
of water harvesting systems in different parts of the 
country. They may have different names like johads, 
ahars, bawdis, talabs, vavs, eris, and others. But 
their underlying theme has remained same “save 
water with public participation”. These traditional 
water-harvesting systems had played an important 
role in maintaining and restoring the ecological 
balance. Till this day these bodies act as a source 
of drinking water, an instrument for recharging 
groundwater, a reliable system to control floods, a 
resource supporting biodiversity, and a contributor 
of livelihood opportunities to many people.
Water is a simple chemical molecule 
made of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms, but its 
interaction with living earthlings is complex; 
because of diversified geological formations, 
complexity in tectonic framework, climatic 
variations and changing hydro-chemical 
environments. Burgeoning human population 
and its greed to exploit water by infinite 
means have made this interaction precarious. 
Natural replenishment of groundwater 
reservoir takes place slowly. At present 
it is unable to keep pace with excessive, 
Yugal Joshi
There is huge pressure to conserve the water, keeping it clean, and to protect, harness, improvise and sustain all that 
wonderful water conservation knowledge employed by our forefathers since millennia. An integrated approach taking into 
account the long-term sustainability, starting from the planning stage where looking at every water-body along with its 
catchment, is required. Unless, we don’t involve the local people, the revival of traditional water conservation systems and 
bodies will be unsuccessful. All traditional systems survived because of people’s active participation. 
Traditional Knowledge in Water Conservation
unmindful and continued exploitation of 
groundwater resources. As a result, in various parts 
of the country groundwater levels have slipped 
down rapidly and groundwater resources have 
depleted.
Overuse of water for agriculture and the 
inability of urban/ rural areas to increase efficient 
treatment of their used water have further limited 
repletion of groundwater resources. Falling 
groundwater levels, deteriorating groundwater 
quality and pollution of surface water bodies –these 
three have combined together to further aggravate 
an already alarming situation. Ever growing 
industrial requirements for quantity and quality of 
water and at the same time, their poor record in 
treating the effluent and recharging the aquifers, 
have made policymakers restless. The source 
sustainability has become the most important thing 
to be ensured. 
In view of above, there is huge pressure to 
conserve the water, keeping it clean and to protect, 
harness, improvise and sustain all that wonderful 
water conservation knowledge employed by our 
forefathers since millennia.  
G
Kurukshetra      July  2022 16
India’s Rich Tradition of Water Harvesting 
Systems
Water harvesting may be defined as a 
deliberate collection and storage of water that 
runs off on natural or manmade catchment areas. 
Catchment may include rooftops, compounds, 
rocky surface or hill slopes or artificially prepared 
impervious/ semi-pervious land surface. The amount 
of water harvested depends on the frequency and 
intensity of the rainfall, catchment characteristics, 
water demands and how much runoff occurs and 
how quickly or how easy it is for the water to 
infiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to 
recharge the aquifers. The most attractive attribute 
of traditional rainwater harvesting systems is their 
simple, cheap, replicable, efficient, sustainable and 
adaptable technique.
Due to water scarcity, water-harvesting 
techniques were developed in a big way in semi-arid 
regions. As water for irrigation was not available 
regularly and rainfall was meagre, for the people of 
these regions, water harvesting was not a technique 
but a part of their culture and was embedded in 
the socio-cultural framework. It became like a part 
of their dharma as is so brightly evident in vavs of 
Gujarat and baolies of Rajasthan. 
The practice of harvesting rainwater dates 
back to Vedic times when the need to create water 
sources that would remain both clean and provide 
plentifully was recognised. But even before that the 
Indus valley cities had excellent systems of water 
harvesting and drainage. Dholavira in Kutch, Gujarat 
was laid out on a slope between two storm water 
channels –it is an example of sophisticated water 
engineering. Sage Narada, in Mahabharata advises 
Yudhishthira to excavate large lakes to store water 
and make cultivation independent of rainwater.
Dams built of stone rubble were found in 
Baluchistan and Kutch dating back to 2000 BC. We 
have evidences of dams, lakes and irrigation systems 
in the time of the Mauryas. Kautilya’s Arthashastra 
mentions irrigation using water harvesting systems. 
A refined water harvesting system of first 
century BC was found at Sringaverapura near 
Prayagraj. It contained floodwaters of River Ganga 
in a fully brick lined tank that is 800 feet long, 60 
feet wide and 12 feet deep. 
In South India, great Karikala Chola built a 
Grand Anicut or kallanai across the river Cauvery 
to divert water for irrigation in second century 
AD. This system is still functional. South India has 
a long tradition of such anicuts. In Central India, 
King Bhoja of Bhopal built one of the largest 
artificial lake, measuring approximately 65,000 
acres fed by streams and springs in 11
th
 century. In 
North India, poet and historian Kalhana in his 12
th
 
century chronicle Rajatarangini describes a well- 
maintained irrigation system in Kashmir. 
Technology of Water Harvesting
In India, rainwater, runoff and the floodwaters 
from rivers, all three were harvested. Most of the 
water harvesting systems were located in the open 
to capture rainwater. The first benefit of water 
harvesting was the water recharge and it was a 
huge public good. When standing water percolated 
into the ground it recharged the water table. Thus, 
wells in the surrounding areas got plenty of good 
water, green cover increased in the surrounding 
areas, soil erosion reduced, river silting reduced, 
floods and runoff got controlled. The water for 
drinking, agriculture and other purposes, obviously, 
was then guaranteed. 
Naturally, the local people decided the design 
and structure of each system based on the terrain 
and rainfall pattern of the region. Hence, each eco-
zone of India had developed its unique techniques 
for harvesting water.
For example, in hills and mountainous regions 
where there were plenty of streams, simple 
engineering structures were used to divert the 
water into channels that fed the fields. In high 
rainfall areas people devised methods to literally 
catch the rainwater wherever it fell. The structures 
became more sophisticated and much bigger when 
the streams turned to rivers, as we see in planes of 
Assam and North India. In arid and semi-arid regions, 
streams were more seasonal, and therefore the 
diversion channels first led the water to a storage 
structure like a tank. At some places storage systems 
to collect just runoff from the watershed were also 
built. In flood plains, several unique systems to 
control and harness the floodwaters were devised. 
In the coastal areas, where possibility of river water 
turning saline is high, several ingenious ways were 
devised to regulate the flow of saline water.
Page 3


Kurukshetra      July  2022 15
lobal consumption of water is doubling 
every 20 years. This consumption growth 
is more than twice the rate of human 
population growth. Mismanagement and 
unsustainable use of water and a blind eye on used 
water (that we so naively call wastewater) is making 
the whole situation environmentally uncomfortable 
for India and the world. Most of the rain falling on 
the surface runs off rapidly, leaving very little for the 
recharge of groundwater. This has become starker 
with erratic monsoons owing to climate change. 
Nature has gifted India with extraordinarily rich 
endowment of diverse and distinctive water bodies. 
Our ancestors had designed and developed hundreds 
of water harvesting systems in different parts of the 
country. They may have different names like johads, 
ahars, bawdis, talabs, vavs, eris, and others. But 
their underlying theme has remained same “save 
water with public participation”. These traditional 
water-harvesting systems had played an important 
role in maintaining and restoring the ecological 
balance. Till this day these bodies act as a source 
of drinking water, an instrument for recharging 
groundwater, a reliable system to control floods, a 
resource supporting biodiversity, and a contributor 
of livelihood opportunities to many people.
Water is a simple chemical molecule 
made of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms, but its 
interaction with living earthlings is complex; 
because of diversified geological formations, 
complexity in tectonic framework, climatic 
variations and changing hydro-chemical 
environments. Burgeoning human population 
and its greed to exploit water by infinite 
means have made this interaction precarious. 
Natural replenishment of groundwater 
reservoir takes place slowly. At present 
it is unable to keep pace with excessive, 
Yugal Joshi
There is huge pressure to conserve the water, keeping it clean, and to protect, harness, improvise and sustain all that 
wonderful water conservation knowledge employed by our forefathers since millennia. An integrated approach taking into 
account the long-term sustainability, starting from the planning stage where looking at every water-body along with its 
catchment, is required. Unless, we don’t involve the local people, the revival of traditional water conservation systems and 
bodies will be unsuccessful. All traditional systems survived because of people’s active participation. 
Traditional Knowledge in Water Conservation
unmindful and continued exploitation of 
groundwater resources. As a result, in various parts 
of the country groundwater levels have slipped 
down rapidly and groundwater resources have 
depleted.
Overuse of water for agriculture and the 
inability of urban/ rural areas to increase efficient 
treatment of their used water have further limited 
repletion of groundwater resources. Falling 
groundwater levels, deteriorating groundwater 
quality and pollution of surface water bodies –these 
three have combined together to further aggravate 
an already alarming situation. Ever growing 
industrial requirements for quantity and quality of 
water and at the same time, their poor record in 
treating the effluent and recharging the aquifers, 
have made policymakers restless. The source 
sustainability has become the most important thing 
to be ensured. 
In view of above, there is huge pressure to 
conserve the water, keeping it clean and to protect, 
harness, improvise and sustain all that wonderful 
water conservation knowledge employed by our 
forefathers since millennia.  
G
Kurukshetra      July  2022 16
India’s Rich Tradition of Water Harvesting 
Systems
Water harvesting may be defined as a 
deliberate collection and storage of water that 
runs off on natural or manmade catchment areas. 
Catchment may include rooftops, compounds, 
rocky surface or hill slopes or artificially prepared 
impervious/ semi-pervious land surface. The amount 
of water harvested depends on the frequency and 
intensity of the rainfall, catchment characteristics, 
water demands and how much runoff occurs and 
how quickly or how easy it is for the water to 
infiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to 
recharge the aquifers. The most attractive attribute 
of traditional rainwater harvesting systems is their 
simple, cheap, replicable, efficient, sustainable and 
adaptable technique.
Due to water scarcity, water-harvesting 
techniques were developed in a big way in semi-arid 
regions. As water for irrigation was not available 
regularly and rainfall was meagre, for the people of 
these regions, water harvesting was not a technique 
but a part of their culture and was embedded in 
the socio-cultural framework. It became like a part 
of their dharma as is so brightly evident in vavs of 
Gujarat and baolies of Rajasthan. 
The practice of harvesting rainwater dates 
back to Vedic times when the need to create water 
sources that would remain both clean and provide 
plentifully was recognised. But even before that the 
Indus valley cities had excellent systems of water 
harvesting and drainage. Dholavira in Kutch, Gujarat 
was laid out on a slope between two storm water 
channels –it is an example of sophisticated water 
engineering. Sage Narada, in Mahabharata advises 
Yudhishthira to excavate large lakes to store water 
and make cultivation independent of rainwater.
Dams built of stone rubble were found in 
Baluchistan and Kutch dating back to 2000 BC. We 
have evidences of dams, lakes and irrigation systems 
in the time of the Mauryas. Kautilya’s Arthashastra 
mentions irrigation using water harvesting systems. 
A refined water harvesting system of first 
century BC was found at Sringaverapura near 
Prayagraj. It contained floodwaters of River Ganga 
in a fully brick lined tank that is 800 feet long, 60 
feet wide and 12 feet deep. 
In South India, great Karikala Chola built a 
Grand Anicut or kallanai across the river Cauvery 
to divert water for irrigation in second century 
AD. This system is still functional. South India has 
a long tradition of such anicuts. In Central India, 
King Bhoja of Bhopal built one of the largest 
artificial lake, measuring approximately 65,000 
acres fed by streams and springs in 11
th
 century. In 
North India, poet and historian Kalhana in his 12
th
 
century chronicle Rajatarangini describes a well- 
maintained irrigation system in Kashmir. 
Technology of Water Harvesting
In India, rainwater, runoff and the floodwaters 
from rivers, all three were harvested. Most of the 
water harvesting systems were located in the open 
to capture rainwater. The first benefit of water 
harvesting was the water recharge and it was a 
huge public good. When standing water percolated 
into the ground it recharged the water table. Thus, 
wells in the surrounding areas got plenty of good 
water, green cover increased in the surrounding 
areas, soil erosion reduced, river silting reduced, 
floods and runoff got controlled. The water for 
drinking, agriculture and other purposes, obviously, 
was then guaranteed. 
Naturally, the local people decided the design 
and structure of each system based on the terrain 
and rainfall pattern of the region. Hence, each eco-
zone of India had developed its unique techniques 
for harvesting water.
For example, in hills and mountainous regions 
where there were plenty of streams, simple 
engineering structures were used to divert the 
water into channels that fed the fields. In high 
rainfall areas people devised methods to literally 
catch the rainwater wherever it fell. The structures 
became more sophisticated and much bigger when 
the streams turned to rivers, as we see in planes of 
Assam and North India. In arid and semi-arid regions, 
streams were more seasonal, and therefore the 
diversion channels first led the water to a storage 
structure like a tank. At some places storage systems 
to collect just runoff from the watershed were also 
built. In flood plains, several unique systems to 
control and harness the floodwaters were devised. 
In the coastal areas, where possibility of river water 
turning saline is high, several ingenious ways were 
devised to regulate the flow of saline water.
Kurukshetra      July  2022 17
In the regions where good groundwater 
aquifers were available, wells were dug with 
innovative methods to lift the water. Deep wells 
were dug in the beds of tanks and rivers, both to 
serve as a source of good water when the water 
receded and also to recharge the groundwater 
when they were fully submerged.
Almost following above described regional 
pattern, we would here mention few water harvesting 
techniques employed in various parts of India. 
North East India 
Bamboo Pipes
In this simple method, water is transported 
through bamboo pipes for irrigation. Bamboo pipes 
are used to divert water of springs on the hilltops 
to the lower regions by gravity. Bamboos of varying 
diameters are used for laying the channels. In 
Meghalaya they do it for black pepper cultivation. In Ri 
Bhoi district of Meghalaya, few villages collect flowing 
stream water through bamboo pads for domestic use. 
Apatani
The water harvesting system is called Apatani 
because the Apatani tribes of the lower Subansiri 
district of Arunachal Pradesh practice it. Apatani 
is a wet rice cultivation cum fish farming system 
practiced in elevated hilly regions and gentle 
sloping valleys of Northeast India. Apatani can tap 
the water of small streams and springs in these 
high rainfall hilly regions through their temporary 
walls. These walls act as barriers and can divert the 
flow of water towards terraced and valley lands. 
In old days when most of the waste in villages 
was biodegradable organic waste, such harvested 
water from the hilltops used to get mixed with such 
domestic waste as it passed through the village 
through small channels. The mix formed as a result 
was considered good for paddy cultivation.
Zabo
The Zabo literally means ‘impounding run-off’. 
It is an ingenious method of catching rainwater from 
running off the mountains. This system is practiced 
in Nagaland. Like other traditional water harvesting 
methods in hills, Zabo also combines water 
conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal 
care and promotes soil management, environmental 
protection and sustainable water management. 
Cheo-ozihi 
Angami tribe of Nagaland practices this 
system. In this system, a long channel carries the 
river water. From this channel many branches take 
off, and water is often diverted to the terraces 
through bamboo pipes. The channel is called Cheo-
oziihi. Oziihi means water and Cheo was the person 
responsible for the laying of this 8-10 km long 
channel with its numerous branches. The channels 
are maintained and cleared each year by the local 
community. 
Dongs or Ponds
Dongs are ponds constructed by the Bodo 
tribes of Assam in Brahmaputra valley to harvest 
water for irrigation. Water was lifted from the ponds 
and distributed into the fields by an instrument 
called lahoni. The ponds were individually owned 
and there was no community involvement for 
digging and maintenance. 
Garh and Dara
These are also rainwater-harvesting techniques 
practiced in Assam from the ancient time. A Garh 
is built to channelise river water to the agricultural 
field. A Garh is like a big nala, where both sides of 
the nala have big and long embankment and the 
middle side is left open to water flow. In the paddy 
field, the whole area is divided into small pieces in 
square size, creating small embankments, called 
Dara, where rain water is stored for cultivation. 
Indo-Gangetic Plains 
Indo-Gangetic plain is full of rivers and their 
floodwaters. It stretches from Haryana-Punjab in 
west to West Bengal in the east. Few important 
water harvesting systems in this region are 
mentioned below:
Ahar-pyne
It is a traditional floodwater harvesting system 
prevalent in Bihar . Ideal terrain for Ahar-pyne should 
have an evident slope, sandy soil, low groundwater 
level and flood during monsoon. The slope is an 
average of one meter per km from south to north. 
In combination, these factors make floodwater 
harvesting a best-suited option. 
The Ahar-pyne system received a deathblow 
under the nineteenth-century British colonial regime. 
Page 4


Kurukshetra      July  2022 15
lobal consumption of water is doubling 
every 20 years. This consumption growth 
is more than twice the rate of human 
population growth. Mismanagement and 
unsustainable use of water and a blind eye on used 
water (that we so naively call wastewater) is making 
the whole situation environmentally uncomfortable 
for India and the world. Most of the rain falling on 
the surface runs off rapidly, leaving very little for the 
recharge of groundwater. This has become starker 
with erratic monsoons owing to climate change. 
Nature has gifted India with extraordinarily rich 
endowment of diverse and distinctive water bodies. 
Our ancestors had designed and developed hundreds 
of water harvesting systems in different parts of the 
country. They may have different names like johads, 
ahars, bawdis, talabs, vavs, eris, and others. But 
their underlying theme has remained same “save 
water with public participation”. These traditional 
water-harvesting systems had played an important 
role in maintaining and restoring the ecological 
balance. Till this day these bodies act as a source 
of drinking water, an instrument for recharging 
groundwater, a reliable system to control floods, a 
resource supporting biodiversity, and a contributor 
of livelihood opportunities to many people.
Water is a simple chemical molecule 
made of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms, but its 
interaction with living earthlings is complex; 
because of diversified geological formations, 
complexity in tectonic framework, climatic 
variations and changing hydro-chemical 
environments. Burgeoning human population 
and its greed to exploit water by infinite 
means have made this interaction precarious. 
Natural replenishment of groundwater 
reservoir takes place slowly. At present 
it is unable to keep pace with excessive, 
Yugal Joshi
There is huge pressure to conserve the water, keeping it clean, and to protect, harness, improvise and sustain all that 
wonderful water conservation knowledge employed by our forefathers since millennia. An integrated approach taking into 
account the long-term sustainability, starting from the planning stage where looking at every water-body along with its 
catchment, is required. Unless, we don’t involve the local people, the revival of traditional water conservation systems and 
bodies will be unsuccessful. All traditional systems survived because of people’s active participation. 
Traditional Knowledge in Water Conservation
unmindful and continued exploitation of 
groundwater resources. As a result, in various parts 
of the country groundwater levels have slipped 
down rapidly and groundwater resources have 
depleted.
Overuse of water for agriculture and the 
inability of urban/ rural areas to increase efficient 
treatment of their used water have further limited 
repletion of groundwater resources. Falling 
groundwater levels, deteriorating groundwater 
quality and pollution of surface water bodies –these 
three have combined together to further aggravate 
an already alarming situation. Ever growing 
industrial requirements for quantity and quality of 
water and at the same time, their poor record in 
treating the effluent and recharging the aquifers, 
have made policymakers restless. The source 
sustainability has become the most important thing 
to be ensured. 
In view of above, there is huge pressure to 
conserve the water, keeping it clean and to protect, 
harness, improvise and sustain all that wonderful 
water conservation knowledge employed by our 
forefathers since millennia.  
G
Kurukshetra      July  2022 16
India’s Rich Tradition of Water Harvesting 
Systems
Water harvesting may be defined as a 
deliberate collection and storage of water that 
runs off on natural or manmade catchment areas. 
Catchment may include rooftops, compounds, 
rocky surface or hill slopes or artificially prepared 
impervious/ semi-pervious land surface. The amount 
of water harvested depends on the frequency and 
intensity of the rainfall, catchment characteristics, 
water demands and how much runoff occurs and 
how quickly or how easy it is for the water to 
infiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to 
recharge the aquifers. The most attractive attribute 
of traditional rainwater harvesting systems is their 
simple, cheap, replicable, efficient, sustainable and 
adaptable technique.
Due to water scarcity, water-harvesting 
techniques were developed in a big way in semi-arid 
regions. As water for irrigation was not available 
regularly and rainfall was meagre, for the people of 
these regions, water harvesting was not a technique 
but a part of their culture and was embedded in 
the socio-cultural framework. It became like a part 
of their dharma as is so brightly evident in vavs of 
Gujarat and baolies of Rajasthan. 
The practice of harvesting rainwater dates 
back to Vedic times when the need to create water 
sources that would remain both clean and provide 
plentifully was recognised. But even before that the 
Indus valley cities had excellent systems of water 
harvesting and drainage. Dholavira in Kutch, Gujarat 
was laid out on a slope between two storm water 
channels –it is an example of sophisticated water 
engineering. Sage Narada, in Mahabharata advises 
Yudhishthira to excavate large lakes to store water 
and make cultivation independent of rainwater.
Dams built of stone rubble were found in 
Baluchistan and Kutch dating back to 2000 BC. We 
have evidences of dams, lakes and irrigation systems 
in the time of the Mauryas. Kautilya’s Arthashastra 
mentions irrigation using water harvesting systems. 
A refined water harvesting system of first 
century BC was found at Sringaverapura near 
Prayagraj. It contained floodwaters of River Ganga 
in a fully brick lined tank that is 800 feet long, 60 
feet wide and 12 feet deep. 
In South India, great Karikala Chola built a 
Grand Anicut or kallanai across the river Cauvery 
to divert water for irrigation in second century 
AD. This system is still functional. South India has 
a long tradition of such anicuts. In Central India, 
King Bhoja of Bhopal built one of the largest 
artificial lake, measuring approximately 65,000 
acres fed by streams and springs in 11
th
 century. In 
North India, poet and historian Kalhana in his 12
th
 
century chronicle Rajatarangini describes a well- 
maintained irrigation system in Kashmir. 
Technology of Water Harvesting
In India, rainwater, runoff and the floodwaters 
from rivers, all three were harvested. Most of the 
water harvesting systems were located in the open 
to capture rainwater. The first benefit of water 
harvesting was the water recharge and it was a 
huge public good. When standing water percolated 
into the ground it recharged the water table. Thus, 
wells in the surrounding areas got plenty of good 
water, green cover increased in the surrounding 
areas, soil erosion reduced, river silting reduced, 
floods and runoff got controlled. The water for 
drinking, agriculture and other purposes, obviously, 
was then guaranteed. 
Naturally, the local people decided the design 
and structure of each system based on the terrain 
and rainfall pattern of the region. Hence, each eco-
zone of India had developed its unique techniques 
for harvesting water.
For example, in hills and mountainous regions 
where there were plenty of streams, simple 
engineering structures were used to divert the 
water into channels that fed the fields. In high 
rainfall areas people devised methods to literally 
catch the rainwater wherever it fell. The structures 
became more sophisticated and much bigger when 
the streams turned to rivers, as we see in planes of 
Assam and North India. In arid and semi-arid regions, 
streams were more seasonal, and therefore the 
diversion channels first led the water to a storage 
structure like a tank. At some places storage systems 
to collect just runoff from the watershed were also 
built. In flood plains, several unique systems to 
control and harness the floodwaters were devised. 
In the coastal areas, where possibility of river water 
turning saline is high, several ingenious ways were 
devised to regulate the flow of saline water.
Kurukshetra      July  2022 17
In the regions where good groundwater 
aquifers were available, wells were dug with 
innovative methods to lift the water. Deep wells 
were dug in the beds of tanks and rivers, both to 
serve as a source of good water when the water 
receded and also to recharge the groundwater 
when they were fully submerged.
Almost following above described regional 
pattern, we would here mention few water harvesting 
techniques employed in various parts of India. 
North East India 
Bamboo Pipes
In this simple method, water is transported 
through bamboo pipes for irrigation. Bamboo pipes 
are used to divert water of springs on the hilltops 
to the lower regions by gravity. Bamboos of varying 
diameters are used for laying the channels. In 
Meghalaya they do it for black pepper cultivation. In Ri 
Bhoi district of Meghalaya, few villages collect flowing 
stream water through bamboo pads for domestic use. 
Apatani
The water harvesting system is called Apatani 
because the Apatani tribes of the lower Subansiri 
district of Arunachal Pradesh practice it. Apatani 
is a wet rice cultivation cum fish farming system 
practiced in elevated hilly regions and gentle 
sloping valleys of Northeast India. Apatani can tap 
the water of small streams and springs in these 
high rainfall hilly regions through their temporary 
walls. These walls act as barriers and can divert the 
flow of water towards terraced and valley lands. 
In old days when most of the waste in villages 
was biodegradable organic waste, such harvested 
water from the hilltops used to get mixed with such 
domestic waste as it passed through the village 
through small channels. The mix formed as a result 
was considered good for paddy cultivation.
Zabo
The Zabo literally means ‘impounding run-off’. 
It is an ingenious method of catching rainwater from 
running off the mountains. This system is practiced 
in Nagaland. Like other traditional water harvesting 
methods in hills, Zabo also combines water 
conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal 
care and promotes soil management, environmental 
protection and sustainable water management. 
Cheo-ozihi 
Angami tribe of Nagaland practices this 
system. In this system, a long channel carries the 
river water. From this channel many branches take 
off, and water is often diverted to the terraces 
through bamboo pipes. The channel is called Cheo-
oziihi. Oziihi means water and Cheo was the person 
responsible for the laying of this 8-10 km long 
channel with its numerous branches. The channels 
are maintained and cleared each year by the local 
community. 
Dongs or Ponds
Dongs are ponds constructed by the Bodo 
tribes of Assam in Brahmaputra valley to harvest 
water for irrigation. Water was lifted from the ponds 
and distributed into the fields by an instrument 
called lahoni. The ponds were individually owned 
and there was no community involvement for 
digging and maintenance. 
Garh and Dara
These are also rainwater-harvesting techniques 
practiced in Assam from the ancient time. A Garh 
is built to channelise river water to the agricultural 
field. A Garh is like a big nala, where both sides of 
the nala have big and long embankment and the 
middle side is left open to water flow. In the paddy 
field, the whole area is divided into small pieces in 
square size, creating small embankments, called 
Dara, where rain water is stored for cultivation. 
Indo-Gangetic Plains 
Indo-Gangetic plain is full of rivers and their 
floodwaters. It stretches from Haryana-Punjab in 
west to West Bengal in the east. Few important 
water harvesting systems in this region are 
mentioned below:
Ahar-pyne
It is a traditional floodwater harvesting system 
prevalent in Bihar . Ideal terrain for Ahar-pyne should 
have an evident slope, sandy soil, low groundwater 
level and flood during monsoon. The slope is an 
average of one meter per km from south to north. 
In combination, these factors make floodwater 
harvesting a best-suited option. 
The Ahar-pyne system received a deathblow 
under the nineteenth-century British colonial regime. 
Kurukshetra      July  2022 18
The post-independent state was hardly better. In 
1949, a Flood Advisory Committee investigating 
continuous floods in Bihar’s Gaya district came to 
the conclusion that “the fundamental reason for 
recurrence of floods was the destruction of the old 
irrigational system in the district.”
1
Bengal’s Inundation Channel 
In old times, inundation canals were a popular 
and efficient irrigation system in Bengal. Floodwater 
entered the fields through the inundation canals, 
carrying not only rich silt but also fish, which swam 
through these canals into the lakes and tanks to 
feed on the larva of mosquitoes. This helped to 
check malaria in this region. This ancient system 
of overflow irrigation had lasted for thousands of 
years. Unfortunately, during the Afghan-Maratha 
war in the 18
th
 century and the subsequent British 
conquest of India, this irrigation system was 
neglected, and was never revived
2
. Many experts 
suggest restoration of this traditional method to 
tackle modern agricultural issues and recommend 
for its revival from the public health point of view. 
Jampois or Dungs
Dungs or Jampois are small irrigation channels 
linking rice fields to streams in the Jalpaiguri district 
of West Bengal.
Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Western Deserts
This geographical region is full of deserts, 
ravines and valleys. Irrigation by wells and tanks 
was very common in western India. The natural 
undulations provide for creation of wells and lakes. 
Both Jodhpur and Udaipur in Rajasthan are dotted 
with innumerable lakes. There are small (talai), 
medium (talab) and large (sagar) lakes. Pichola, 
Fatehsagar and Udaisagar are Udaipur’s main 
lakes. Every effort was made to catch every drop of 
rainwater by building tanks, lakes, ponds, wells and 
drainage canals.
The Chandela kings (between 9
th
 to 13
th
 
centuries) in central India established a network of 
several hundred tankas that ensured a satisfactory 
level of groundwater. Tankas were constructed 
by stopping the flow of a nullah or a rivulet 
running between two hills with a massive earthen 
embankment. The quartz reefs running under the 
hills confined the water between them.
The Bundela kings who came later used lime 
and mortar masonry. Steps, pavilions and royal 
gardens bordered their reservoirs. Breaching of 
embankments and cultivation on the tank bed 
has destroyed many tanks. But the wells in the 
command area of these tanks continue to yield well 
and also serve to recharge the groundwater.
Great Thar Desert receives very little rainfall. 
Traditionally, the rainwater was captured and stored 
in ponds and underground tanks. For example, tarais 
(reservoirs) were built in the valley between sand 
dunes by constructing bunds at the two ends. When 
it rained, the rainwater was collected in the reservoir. 
The tarais dried up in a few months owing to the 
highly porous soil. But the region around it remained 
wet and moist. Wells were usually dug close to a tarai.
Tankas/Tanks
Tankas are underground small tanks and are 
popular in Bikaner. Tanka is a round or rectangular 
underground room in a house that functions as a 
water tank. Rainwater from the roof or terrace is 
directed towards an opening in the floor that leads 
to the Tanka. Rainwater is collected in these circular 
holes, lined with fine polished lime, made in the 
ground. Tankas are often beautifully decorated with 
tiles. These tiles help to keep the water cool. The 
water was used only for drinking purpose. In water 
scarce arid regions, tankas save families from the 
everyday drudgery of fetching water from distant 
sources.
In contrast, tanks (sagar/jheel) are generally 
constructed with large walls on four sides and an 
almost impermeable floor, with enormous water 
holding capacity. These are the oldest source of water 
for irrigation. Most of them are small reservoirs with 
earthen walls, used for storing water diverted from a 
stream or run off. The tanks are provided with a large 
catchment area and a system of canals. 
Kunds or Kundis
In western arid areas of Rajasthan, kunds are 
water-harvesting structures. Kunds have a saucer-
shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards 
1
Parampara, HYPERLINK "https://www.paramparaproject.org/traditions.html"Traditions & Practices>Ahar-pyne, Ministry of Culture, 
"http://www.paramparaproject.org/traditions_ahar_pyane.html"  
2
 For more on Bengal Canals and Willcocks, please refer to: Willcocks, William, Sir, Ancient System of Irrigation in Bengal and Its 
Application to Modern Problems, 1984, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi. 
Page 5


Kurukshetra      July  2022 15
lobal consumption of water is doubling 
every 20 years. This consumption growth 
is more than twice the rate of human 
population growth. Mismanagement and 
unsustainable use of water and a blind eye on used 
water (that we so naively call wastewater) is making 
the whole situation environmentally uncomfortable 
for India and the world. Most of the rain falling on 
the surface runs off rapidly, leaving very little for the 
recharge of groundwater. This has become starker 
with erratic monsoons owing to climate change. 
Nature has gifted India with extraordinarily rich 
endowment of diverse and distinctive water bodies. 
Our ancestors had designed and developed hundreds 
of water harvesting systems in different parts of the 
country. They may have different names like johads, 
ahars, bawdis, talabs, vavs, eris, and others. But 
their underlying theme has remained same “save 
water with public participation”. These traditional 
water-harvesting systems had played an important 
role in maintaining and restoring the ecological 
balance. Till this day these bodies act as a source 
of drinking water, an instrument for recharging 
groundwater, a reliable system to control floods, a 
resource supporting biodiversity, and a contributor 
of livelihood opportunities to many people.
Water is a simple chemical molecule 
made of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms, but its 
interaction with living earthlings is complex; 
because of diversified geological formations, 
complexity in tectonic framework, climatic 
variations and changing hydro-chemical 
environments. Burgeoning human population 
and its greed to exploit water by infinite 
means have made this interaction precarious. 
Natural replenishment of groundwater 
reservoir takes place slowly. At present 
it is unable to keep pace with excessive, 
Yugal Joshi
There is huge pressure to conserve the water, keeping it clean, and to protect, harness, improvise and sustain all that 
wonderful water conservation knowledge employed by our forefathers since millennia. An integrated approach taking into 
account the long-term sustainability, starting from the planning stage where looking at every water-body along with its 
catchment, is required. Unless, we don’t involve the local people, the revival of traditional water conservation systems and 
bodies will be unsuccessful. All traditional systems survived because of people’s active participation. 
Traditional Knowledge in Water Conservation
unmindful and continued exploitation of 
groundwater resources. As a result, in various parts 
of the country groundwater levels have slipped 
down rapidly and groundwater resources have 
depleted.
Overuse of water for agriculture and the 
inability of urban/ rural areas to increase efficient 
treatment of their used water have further limited 
repletion of groundwater resources. Falling 
groundwater levels, deteriorating groundwater 
quality and pollution of surface water bodies –these 
three have combined together to further aggravate 
an already alarming situation. Ever growing 
industrial requirements for quantity and quality of 
water and at the same time, their poor record in 
treating the effluent and recharging the aquifers, 
have made policymakers restless. The source 
sustainability has become the most important thing 
to be ensured. 
In view of above, there is huge pressure to 
conserve the water, keeping it clean and to protect, 
harness, improvise and sustain all that wonderful 
water conservation knowledge employed by our 
forefathers since millennia.  
G
Kurukshetra      July  2022 16
India’s Rich Tradition of Water Harvesting 
Systems
Water harvesting may be defined as a 
deliberate collection and storage of water that 
runs off on natural or manmade catchment areas. 
Catchment may include rooftops, compounds, 
rocky surface or hill slopes or artificially prepared 
impervious/ semi-pervious land surface. The amount 
of water harvested depends on the frequency and 
intensity of the rainfall, catchment characteristics, 
water demands and how much runoff occurs and 
how quickly or how easy it is for the water to 
infiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to 
recharge the aquifers. The most attractive attribute 
of traditional rainwater harvesting systems is their 
simple, cheap, replicable, efficient, sustainable and 
adaptable technique.
Due to water scarcity, water-harvesting 
techniques were developed in a big way in semi-arid 
regions. As water for irrigation was not available 
regularly and rainfall was meagre, for the people of 
these regions, water harvesting was not a technique 
but a part of their culture and was embedded in 
the socio-cultural framework. It became like a part 
of their dharma as is so brightly evident in vavs of 
Gujarat and baolies of Rajasthan. 
The practice of harvesting rainwater dates 
back to Vedic times when the need to create water 
sources that would remain both clean and provide 
plentifully was recognised. But even before that the 
Indus valley cities had excellent systems of water 
harvesting and drainage. Dholavira in Kutch, Gujarat 
was laid out on a slope between two storm water 
channels –it is an example of sophisticated water 
engineering. Sage Narada, in Mahabharata advises 
Yudhishthira to excavate large lakes to store water 
and make cultivation independent of rainwater.
Dams built of stone rubble were found in 
Baluchistan and Kutch dating back to 2000 BC. We 
have evidences of dams, lakes and irrigation systems 
in the time of the Mauryas. Kautilya’s Arthashastra 
mentions irrigation using water harvesting systems. 
A refined water harvesting system of first 
century BC was found at Sringaverapura near 
Prayagraj. It contained floodwaters of River Ganga 
in a fully brick lined tank that is 800 feet long, 60 
feet wide and 12 feet deep. 
In South India, great Karikala Chola built a 
Grand Anicut or kallanai across the river Cauvery 
to divert water for irrigation in second century 
AD. This system is still functional. South India has 
a long tradition of such anicuts. In Central India, 
King Bhoja of Bhopal built one of the largest 
artificial lake, measuring approximately 65,000 
acres fed by streams and springs in 11
th
 century. In 
North India, poet and historian Kalhana in his 12
th
 
century chronicle Rajatarangini describes a well- 
maintained irrigation system in Kashmir. 
Technology of Water Harvesting
In India, rainwater, runoff and the floodwaters 
from rivers, all three were harvested. Most of the 
water harvesting systems were located in the open 
to capture rainwater. The first benefit of water 
harvesting was the water recharge and it was a 
huge public good. When standing water percolated 
into the ground it recharged the water table. Thus, 
wells in the surrounding areas got plenty of good 
water, green cover increased in the surrounding 
areas, soil erosion reduced, river silting reduced, 
floods and runoff got controlled. The water for 
drinking, agriculture and other purposes, obviously, 
was then guaranteed. 
Naturally, the local people decided the design 
and structure of each system based on the terrain 
and rainfall pattern of the region. Hence, each eco-
zone of India had developed its unique techniques 
for harvesting water.
For example, in hills and mountainous regions 
where there were plenty of streams, simple 
engineering structures were used to divert the 
water into channels that fed the fields. In high 
rainfall areas people devised methods to literally 
catch the rainwater wherever it fell. The structures 
became more sophisticated and much bigger when 
the streams turned to rivers, as we see in planes of 
Assam and North India. In arid and semi-arid regions, 
streams were more seasonal, and therefore the 
diversion channels first led the water to a storage 
structure like a tank. At some places storage systems 
to collect just runoff from the watershed were also 
built. In flood plains, several unique systems to 
control and harness the floodwaters were devised. 
In the coastal areas, where possibility of river water 
turning saline is high, several ingenious ways were 
devised to regulate the flow of saline water.
Kurukshetra      July  2022 17
In the regions where good groundwater 
aquifers were available, wells were dug with 
innovative methods to lift the water. Deep wells 
were dug in the beds of tanks and rivers, both to 
serve as a source of good water when the water 
receded and also to recharge the groundwater 
when they were fully submerged.
Almost following above described regional 
pattern, we would here mention few water harvesting 
techniques employed in various parts of India. 
North East India 
Bamboo Pipes
In this simple method, water is transported 
through bamboo pipes for irrigation. Bamboo pipes 
are used to divert water of springs on the hilltops 
to the lower regions by gravity. Bamboos of varying 
diameters are used for laying the channels. In 
Meghalaya they do it for black pepper cultivation. In Ri 
Bhoi district of Meghalaya, few villages collect flowing 
stream water through bamboo pads for domestic use. 
Apatani
The water harvesting system is called Apatani 
because the Apatani tribes of the lower Subansiri 
district of Arunachal Pradesh practice it. Apatani 
is a wet rice cultivation cum fish farming system 
practiced in elevated hilly regions and gentle 
sloping valleys of Northeast India. Apatani can tap 
the water of small streams and springs in these 
high rainfall hilly regions through their temporary 
walls. These walls act as barriers and can divert the 
flow of water towards terraced and valley lands. 
In old days when most of the waste in villages 
was biodegradable organic waste, such harvested 
water from the hilltops used to get mixed with such 
domestic waste as it passed through the village 
through small channels. The mix formed as a result 
was considered good for paddy cultivation.
Zabo
The Zabo literally means ‘impounding run-off’. 
It is an ingenious method of catching rainwater from 
running off the mountains. This system is practiced 
in Nagaland. Like other traditional water harvesting 
methods in hills, Zabo also combines water 
conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal 
care and promotes soil management, environmental 
protection and sustainable water management. 
Cheo-ozihi 
Angami tribe of Nagaland practices this 
system. In this system, a long channel carries the 
river water. From this channel many branches take 
off, and water is often diverted to the terraces 
through bamboo pipes. The channel is called Cheo-
oziihi. Oziihi means water and Cheo was the person 
responsible for the laying of this 8-10 km long 
channel with its numerous branches. The channels 
are maintained and cleared each year by the local 
community. 
Dongs or Ponds
Dongs are ponds constructed by the Bodo 
tribes of Assam in Brahmaputra valley to harvest 
water for irrigation. Water was lifted from the ponds 
and distributed into the fields by an instrument 
called lahoni. The ponds were individually owned 
and there was no community involvement for 
digging and maintenance. 
Garh and Dara
These are also rainwater-harvesting techniques 
practiced in Assam from the ancient time. A Garh 
is built to channelise river water to the agricultural 
field. A Garh is like a big nala, where both sides of 
the nala have big and long embankment and the 
middle side is left open to water flow. In the paddy 
field, the whole area is divided into small pieces in 
square size, creating small embankments, called 
Dara, where rain water is stored for cultivation. 
Indo-Gangetic Plains 
Indo-Gangetic plain is full of rivers and their 
floodwaters. It stretches from Haryana-Punjab in 
west to West Bengal in the east. Few important 
water harvesting systems in this region are 
mentioned below:
Ahar-pyne
It is a traditional floodwater harvesting system 
prevalent in Bihar . Ideal terrain for Ahar-pyne should 
have an evident slope, sandy soil, low groundwater 
level and flood during monsoon. The slope is an 
average of one meter per km from south to north. 
In combination, these factors make floodwater 
harvesting a best-suited option. 
The Ahar-pyne system received a deathblow 
under the nineteenth-century British colonial regime. 
Kurukshetra      July  2022 18
The post-independent state was hardly better. In 
1949, a Flood Advisory Committee investigating 
continuous floods in Bihar’s Gaya district came to 
the conclusion that “the fundamental reason for 
recurrence of floods was the destruction of the old 
irrigational system in the district.”
1
Bengal’s Inundation Channel 
In old times, inundation canals were a popular 
and efficient irrigation system in Bengal. Floodwater 
entered the fields through the inundation canals, 
carrying not only rich silt but also fish, which swam 
through these canals into the lakes and tanks to 
feed on the larva of mosquitoes. This helped to 
check malaria in this region. This ancient system 
of overflow irrigation had lasted for thousands of 
years. Unfortunately, during the Afghan-Maratha 
war in the 18
th
 century and the subsequent British 
conquest of India, this irrigation system was 
neglected, and was never revived
2
. Many experts 
suggest restoration of this traditional method to 
tackle modern agricultural issues and recommend 
for its revival from the public health point of view. 
Jampois or Dungs
Dungs or Jampois are small irrigation channels 
linking rice fields to streams in the Jalpaiguri district 
of West Bengal.
Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Western Deserts
This geographical region is full of deserts, 
ravines and valleys. Irrigation by wells and tanks 
was very common in western India. The natural 
undulations provide for creation of wells and lakes. 
Both Jodhpur and Udaipur in Rajasthan are dotted 
with innumerable lakes. There are small (talai), 
medium (talab) and large (sagar) lakes. Pichola, 
Fatehsagar and Udaisagar are Udaipur’s main 
lakes. Every effort was made to catch every drop of 
rainwater by building tanks, lakes, ponds, wells and 
drainage canals.
The Chandela kings (between 9
th
 to 13
th
 
centuries) in central India established a network of 
several hundred tankas that ensured a satisfactory 
level of groundwater. Tankas were constructed 
by stopping the flow of a nullah or a rivulet 
running between two hills with a massive earthen 
embankment. The quartz reefs running under the 
hills confined the water between them.
The Bundela kings who came later used lime 
and mortar masonry. Steps, pavilions and royal 
gardens bordered their reservoirs. Breaching of 
embankments and cultivation on the tank bed 
has destroyed many tanks. But the wells in the 
command area of these tanks continue to yield well 
and also serve to recharge the groundwater.
Great Thar Desert receives very little rainfall. 
Traditionally, the rainwater was captured and stored 
in ponds and underground tanks. For example, tarais 
(reservoirs) were built in the valley between sand 
dunes by constructing bunds at the two ends. When 
it rained, the rainwater was collected in the reservoir. 
The tarais dried up in a few months owing to the 
highly porous soil. But the region around it remained 
wet and moist. Wells were usually dug close to a tarai.
Tankas/Tanks
Tankas are underground small tanks and are 
popular in Bikaner. Tanka is a round or rectangular 
underground room in a house that functions as a 
water tank. Rainwater from the roof or terrace is 
directed towards an opening in the floor that leads 
to the Tanka. Rainwater is collected in these circular 
holes, lined with fine polished lime, made in the 
ground. Tankas are often beautifully decorated with 
tiles. These tiles help to keep the water cool. The 
water was used only for drinking purpose. In water 
scarce arid regions, tankas save families from the 
everyday drudgery of fetching water from distant 
sources.
In contrast, tanks (sagar/jheel) are generally 
constructed with large walls on four sides and an 
almost impermeable floor, with enormous water 
holding capacity. These are the oldest source of water 
for irrigation. Most of them are small reservoirs with 
earthen walls, used for storing water diverted from a 
stream or run off. The tanks are provided with a large 
catchment area and a system of canals. 
Kunds or Kundis
In western arid areas of Rajasthan, kunds are 
water-harvesting structures. Kunds have a saucer-
shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards 
1
Parampara, HYPERLINK "https://www.paramparaproject.org/traditions.html"Traditions & Practices>Ahar-pyne, Ministry of Culture, 
"http://www.paramparaproject.org/traditions_ahar_pyane.html"  
2
 For more on Bengal Canals and Willcocks, please refer to: Willcocks, William, Sir, Ancient System of Irrigation in Bengal and Its 
Application to Modern Problems, 1984, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi. 
Kurukshetra      July  2022 19
the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh 
across water-inlets prevents debris from falling into 
the well pit. The sides of the well-pit are generally 
covered with lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-
shaped cover or a lid to protect the water. Kunds 
are constructed where the groundwater availability 
is limited and salinity is moderate to high.
Locally available material like pond silt, 
charcoal ash and small gravels are used to make 
catchment areas of the Kunds. The depth and 
diameter of Kunds usually depend on consumption 
patterns. It is an ideal system for desert areas where 
rainfall is scant. 
Kuis or Beris
Dug mostly in western Rajasthan, the Kuis are 
10-12 metre deep pits in the vicinity of tankas to 
collect leaking or oozing water. When 6 to 10 Kuis 
are constructed together, the entire system is then 
called Paar system. Rainwater harvested through 
such system is called Patali Paani. 
Kuis can also be used to harvest rainwater 
in areas with scant rainfall. The mouth of the pit 
is usually made very narrow which reduces the 
evaporation of the stored water. The pit gets wider 
as it gets deeper, so that water can seep into a 
large surface area. The openings of these earthen 
structures are generally covered with planks of 
wood, thus remain mostly kuchcha. This water is 
used sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations.
Khadins
The Khadin system is a runoff agricultural 
system, in which, the runoff water from the high 
catchment area is stored with the help of a Khadin 
bund where it is impounded during the monsoon 
season. This water is then used for irrigation. 
The Khadin soil remain moist for a long period 
because of water storage and chemical weathering, 
decomposition along with the activities of the 
microbes, which eventually raise the organic matter 
and other nutrient content of the soil. 
Khadin have functioned efficiently for 
centuries maintaining the soil fertility. The Paliwal 
Brahmins of Jaisalmer are said to be the pioneers 
of this technique in the 15
th
 century. The king gave 
lands to the Paliwals and asked them to develop 
Khadins on the land. The ownership of the land 
would remain with the King. The Paliwals used to 
get a share in the harvest. This system has great 
similarity with the irrigation methods of the people 
of Mesopotamia around 4500 BC.
3
Nadis
A nadi is the local name of a village pond used 
for storing rainwater from the adjoining natural 
catchment areas. These were very common in 
Jodhpur. Based on available natural catchments 
and its water yielding potential, site for a nadi 
was selected. The location of the nadi had a 
strong bearing on its storage capacity due to the 
related catchment and runoff characteristics. 
Unfortunately, because of poor maintenance and 
negligence, destruction of catchment areas and 
unplanned urbanisation, most of the nadis have 
been severely polluted. 
Talabs
A talab is a water harvesting structure 
constructed in valleys and natural depressions. They 
are used as reservoirs. Some talabs have wells in 
their beds. Such well-decked talabs are called beris. 
The existing oldest talab in Rajasthan is Ranisar. It 
was constructed in 1490 AD. 
Virda 
Virdas are shallow holes, which are made in 
the sands of dry riverbeds and lakes for collecting 
drinking water. They are found all over the Banni 
grasslands, a part of the great Rann of Kutch in 
Gujarat. First a depression or Jheel is excavated up 
to depth of 2 to 5 meter depending on the type of 
soil and level of salinity. This helps in removing the 
salinity embedded in the topsoil and non-permeable 
clay. Such a dug area looks like a small pond. Such 
depressed structure helps in storing more amount 
and longer retention of monsoon runoff, leading to 
enhanced infiltration to shallow aquifers. 
The most important structure in this whole 
water system is Virda or dug well. Within a jheel, 
10 to 20 wells of approximately 1 to 1.5 meter of 
diameter and 3 to 5 meter of depth are dug. These 
dug wells are framed from inside in square form 
with wooden trunks to support them. Further on 
the inner side of these trunks, the locally available 
3
Bhalge, P . and Bhavsar, C. 2007. Water management in arid and semi arid zone: Traditional wisdom. International History Seminar on 
Irrigation and Drainage, Tehran-Iran, pp. 423-428.