NCERT Textbook - Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture | Fine Art for Class 11 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

 Page 1


F
ROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulers
established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in souther n and western India.
Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as
the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sites
dating back to the second century BCE in India. Some of
the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found
at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra).
Bharhut
Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of the
sculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.
Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panels
depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is
shown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative is
enhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrative
panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time
progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space. At times
more than one event at one geographical place is clubbed
in the picture space or only a single main event is depicted
in the pictorial space.
Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by
the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as
single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown
flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in
later times, the hands are shown with the natural
projection against the chest. Such examples show how
artisans who were working at a collective level had to
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN
INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Yakshini, Bharhut
4
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 2


F
ROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulers
established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in souther n and western India.
Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as
the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sites
dating back to the second century BCE in India. Some of
the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found
at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra).
Bharhut
Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of the
sculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.
Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panels
depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is
shown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative is
enhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrative
panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time
progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space. At times
more than one event at one geographical place is clubbed
in the picture space or only a single main event is depicted
in the pictorial space.
Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by
the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as
single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown
flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in
later times, the hands are shown with the natural
projection against the chest. Such examples show how
artisans who were working at a collective level had to
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN
INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Yakshini, Bharhut
4
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 28
understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing the
surface of stone slabs appears as the main concern. Later
the human body and other forms were sculpted. Due to
shallow carving of the picture surface, projection of hands
and feet was not possible, hence, the folded hands and
awkward position of the feet. There is a general stiffness in
the body and arms. But gradually, such visual appearance
was modified by making images with deep carvings,
pronounced volume and a very naturalistic representation
of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at Bharhut,
Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta are good
examples.
Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used
the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.
In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (mother
of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant is
shown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas
an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the womb
of Queen Mayadevi. On the other hand, the depiction of a
Jataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events
according to the geographical location of the story like the
depiction of Ruru Jataka where the Boddhisattva deer is
rescuing a man on his back. The other event in the same
picture frame depicts the King standing with his army and
about to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was
Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut Jataka panel , Bharhut
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 3


F
ROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulers
established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in souther n and western India.
Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as
the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sites
dating back to the second century BCE in India. Some of
the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found
at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra).
Bharhut
Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of the
sculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.
Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panels
depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is
shown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative is
enhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrative
panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time
progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space. At times
more than one event at one geographical place is clubbed
in the picture space or only a single main event is depicted
in the pictorial space.
Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by
the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as
single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown
flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in
later times, the hands are shown with the natural
projection against the chest. Such examples show how
artisans who were working at a collective level had to
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN
INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Yakshini, Bharhut
4
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 28
understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing the
surface of stone slabs appears as the main concern. Later
the human body and other forms were sculpted. Due to
shallow carving of the picture surface, projection of hands
and feet was not possible, hence, the folded hands and
awkward position of the feet. There is a general stiffness in
the body and arms. But gradually, such visual appearance
was modified by making images with deep carvings,
pronounced volume and a very naturalistic representation
of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at Bharhut,
Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta are good
examples.
Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used
the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.
In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (mother
of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant is
shown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas
an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the womb
of Queen Mayadevi. On the other hand, the depiction of a
Jataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events
according to the geographical location of the story like the
depiction of Ruru Jataka where the Boddhisattva deer is
rescuing a man on his back. The other event in the same
picture frame depicts the King standing with his army and
about to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was
Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut Jataka panel , Bharhut
Rationalised 2023-24
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 29
rescued by the deer is also shown along with the king
pointing a finger at the deer. According to the story, the
man promised the deer after his rescue that he would not
disclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makes
a proclamation of reward for disclosing the identity of the
deer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same jungle
where he had seen the deer. Such Jataka stories became
part of stupa decoration. Interestingly, with the rise in the
construction of stupas in various parts of the country,
regional stylistic variations also began to emerge. One main
characteristic in all the male images of first–second
centuries BCE is the knotted headgear. In many sculptures
it is very consistent. Some of the sculptures found at
Bharhut are displayed in Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Sanchi
The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1,
Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District)
is noteworthy in the stylistic progression. Stupa-1 at Sanchi
has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated
toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha
and the Jatakas. Figure compositions are in high relief,
filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture gets
naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body. Heads
have considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity
Chhatri
Harmika
Anda
Medhi
Vedika
Pradakshina
patha
Torana
Plan of  Stupa-1, Sanchi
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 4


F
ROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulers
established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in souther n and western India.
Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as
the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sites
dating back to the second century BCE in India. Some of
the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found
at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra).
Bharhut
Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of the
sculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.
Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panels
depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is
shown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative is
enhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrative
panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time
progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space. At times
more than one event at one geographical place is clubbed
in the picture space or only a single main event is depicted
in the pictorial space.
Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by
the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as
single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown
flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in
later times, the hands are shown with the natural
projection against the chest. Such examples show how
artisans who were working at a collective level had to
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN
INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Yakshini, Bharhut
4
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 28
understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing the
surface of stone slabs appears as the main concern. Later
the human body and other forms were sculpted. Due to
shallow carving of the picture surface, projection of hands
and feet was not possible, hence, the folded hands and
awkward position of the feet. There is a general stiffness in
the body and arms. But gradually, such visual appearance
was modified by making images with deep carvings,
pronounced volume and a very naturalistic representation
of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at Bharhut,
Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta are good
examples.
Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used
the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.
In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (mother
of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant is
shown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas
an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the womb
of Queen Mayadevi. On the other hand, the depiction of a
Jataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events
according to the geographical location of the story like the
depiction of Ruru Jataka where the Boddhisattva deer is
rescuing a man on his back. The other event in the same
picture frame depicts the King standing with his army and
about to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was
Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut Jataka panel , Bharhut
Rationalised 2023-24
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 29
rescued by the deer is also shown along with the king
pointing a finger at the deer. According to the story, the
man promised the deer after his rescue that he would not
disclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makes
a proclamation of reward for disclosing the identity of the
deer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same jungle
where he had seen the deer. Such Jataka stories became
part of stupa decoration. Interestingly, with the rise in the
construction of stupas in various parts of the country,
regional stylistic variations also began to emerge. One main
characteristic in all the male images of first–second
centuries BCE is the knotted headgear. In many sculptures
it is very consistent. Some of the sculptures found at
Bharhut are displayed in Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Sanchi
The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1,
Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District)
is noteworthy in the stylistic progression. Stupa-1 at Sanchi
has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated
toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha
and the Jatakas. Figure compositions are in high relief,
filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture gets
naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body. Heads
have considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity
Chhatri
Harmika
Anda
Medhi
Vedika
Pradakshina
patha
Torana
Plan of  Stupa-1, Sanchi
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 30
in the contours gets reduced and images are given
movement. Narration gets elaborated. Carving techniques
appear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continue
to be used representing the Buddha. At Sanchi Stupa-1,
narratives get more elaborated; however, the depiction of
the dream episode remains very simple showing the
reclining image of the queen and the elephant at the top.
The historical narratives such as the siege of Kushinara,
Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the
Ramgrama Stupa are carved with considerable details. In
Mathura, images of this period bear the same quality but
are different in the depiction of  physiognomic details.
Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools
The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan),
Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh
emerged as important centres of art production. Buddha
in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and
Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the
confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara
tradition. The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became
so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern
India. The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures
found at Sanghol in the Punjab. The Buddha image at
Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images
whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features. Early Jain
Teerthankar images and portraits of kings, specially the
headless Kanishka are also found from Mathura.
Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various
forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas)
faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are
found in large numbers. It may be noted that the images
of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas
(weapons). There is boldness in carving the large images,
the volume of the images is projected out of the picture
plane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in the
sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garments
of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left
shoulder. Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis,
Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are
profusely sculpted. In the second century CE, images in
Mathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they become
fleshier. The trend continues in the fourth century CE but
in the late fourth century CE, the massiveness and
fleshiness is reduced further and the flesh becomes more
tightened, the volume of the drapery also gets reduced
and in the fifth and sixth centuries CE, the drapery is
Part of railing, Sangol
Stone carving, Stupa-1,
Sanchi
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 5


F
ROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulers
established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in souther n and western India.
Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as
the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sites
dating back to the second century BCE in India. Some of
the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found
at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra).
Bharhut
Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of the
sculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.
Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panels
depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is
shown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative is
enhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrative
panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time
progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space. At times
more than one event at one geographical place is clubbed
in the picture space or only a single main event is depicted
in the pictorial space.
Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by
the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as
single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown
flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in
later times, the hands are shown with the natural
projection against the chest. Such examples show how
artisans who were working at a collective level had to
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN
INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Yakshini, Bharhut
4
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 28
understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing the
surface of stone slabs appears as the main concern. Later
the human body and other forms were sculpted. Due to
shallow carving of the picture surface, projection of hands
and feet was not possible, hence, the folded hands and
awkward position of the feet. There is a general stiffness in
the body and arms. But gradually, such visual appearance
was modified by making images with deep carvings,
pronounced volume and a very naturalistic representation
of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at Bharhut,
Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta are good
examples.
Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used
the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.
In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (mother
of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant is
shown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas
an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the womb
of Queen Mayadevi. On the other hand, the depiction of a
Jataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events
according to the geographical location of the story like the
depiction of Ruru Jataka where the Boddhisattva deer is
rescuing a man on his back. The other event in the same
picture frame depicts the King standing with his army and
about to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was
Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut Jataka panel , Bharhut
Rationalised 2023-24
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 29
rescued by the deer is also shown along with the king
pointing a finger at the deer. According to the story, the
man promised the deer after his rescue that he would not
disclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makes
a proclamation of reward for disclosing the identity of the
deer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same jungle
where he had seen the deer. Such Jataka stories became
part of stupa decoration. Interestingly, with the rise in the
construction of stupas in various parts of the country,
regional stylistic variations also began to emerge. One main
characteristic in all the male images of first–second
centuries BCE is the knotted headgear. In many sculptures
it is very consistent. Some of the sculptures found at
Bharhut are displayed in Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Sanchi
The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1,
Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District)
is noteworthy in the stylistic progression. Stupa-1 at Sanchi
has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated
toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha
and the Jatakas. Figure compositions are in high relief,
filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture gets
naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body. Heads
have considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity
Chhatri
Harmika
Anda
Medhi
Vedika
Pradakshina
patha
Torana
Plan of  Stupa-1, Sanchi
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 30
in the contours gets reduced and images are given
movement. Narration gets elaborated. Carving techniques
appear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continue
to be used representing the Buddha. At Sanchi Stupa-1,
narratives get more elaborated; however, the depiction of
the dream episode remains very simple showing the
reclining image of the queen and the elephant at the top.
The historical narratives such as the siege of Kushinara,
Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the
Ramgrama Stupa are carved with considerable details. In
Mathura, images of this period bear the same quality but
are different in the depiction of  physiognomic details.
Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools
The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan),
Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh
emerged as important centres of art production. Buddha
in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and
Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the
confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara
tradition. The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became
so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern
India. The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures
found at Sanghol in the Punjab. The Buddha image at
Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images
whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features. Early Jain
Teerthankar images and portraits of kings, specially the
headless Kanishka are also found from Mathura.
Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various
forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas)
faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are
found in large numbers. It may be noted that the images
of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas
(weapons). There is boldness in carving the large images,
the volume of the images is projected out of the picture
plane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in the
sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garments
of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left
shoulder. Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis,
Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are
profusely sculpted. In the second century CE, images in
Mathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they become
fleshier. The trend continues in the fourth century CE but
in the late fourth century CE, the massiveness and
fleshiness is reduced further and the flesh becomes more
tightened, the volume of the drapery also gets reduced
and in the fifth and sixth centuries CE, the drapery is
Part of railing, Sangol
Stone carving, Stupa-1,
Sanchi
Rationalised 2023-24
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 31
integrated into the sculptural mass. Transparent quality
in the robes of the Buddha images is evident. In this period,
two important schools of sculptures in northern India are
worth noting. The traditional centre, Mathura, remained
the main art production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi
also emerged as important centres of art production. Many
Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery
covering both shoulders, and the halo around the head
has very  little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha
images continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha
images and the halo around the head is profusely decorated.
One can visit museums at Mathura, Sar nath, Varanasi,
New Delhi, Chennai, Amaravati, etc. to study the features
of early sculptures.
Among the important stupa sites outside the Gangetic
valley is Devnimori in Gujarat. In the subsequent centuries
sculptures had little variations while slender images with
transparent drapery remained a dominant aesthetic
sensibility.
Bodhisattva, Gandhar, fifth–sixth century CE
Meditating Buddha, Gandhar,
third–fourth century CE
Rationalised 2023-24