NCERT Textbook - Temple Architecture and Sculpture | Fine Art for Class 11 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

 Page 1


Temple architecture in India
        (Outline map not to scale)
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 2


Temple architecture in India
        (Outline map not to scale)
Rationalised 2023-24
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
AND SCULPTURE
6
Today when we say 'temple'
in English we generally
mean a devalaya, devkula
mandir , kovil, deol,
devasthanam or prasada
depending on which part of
India we are in.
M
OST of the art and architectural remains that survive
from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in
nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in
their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and
the things in them were mostly made from materials like
wood and clay which have perished. This chapter introduces
us to many types of temples from India. Although we have
focussed mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter
you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain
temples too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind
that religious shrines were also made for many local cults
in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone
the ancient or medieval shrines in those areas have also
vanished.
Early Temples
While construction of stupas
continued, Brahmanical temples
and images of gods also started
getting constructed. Often
temples were decorated with the
images of gods. Myths mentioned
in the Puranas became part of
narrative representation of the
Brahmanical religion. Each
temple had a principal image of
a god. The shrines of the temples
were of three kinds—(i) sandhara
type (without pradikshinapatha),
(ii) nirandhara type (with
pradakshinapatha), and (iii)
sarvatobhadra (which can be
accessed from all sides). Some
of the important temple sites of
this period are Deogarh in Uttar
Chatur Mukhlinga,
Nachna- Kuthara (Inset)
Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 3


Temple architecture in India
        (Outline map not to scale)
Rationalised 2023-24
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
AND SCULPTURE
6
Today when we say 'temple'
in English we generally
mean a devalaya, devkula
mandir , kovil, deol,
devasthanam or prasada
depending on which part of
India we are in.
M
OST of the art and architectural remains that survive
from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in
nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in
their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and
the things in them were mostly made from materials like
wood and clay which have perished. This chapter introduces
us to many types of temples from India. Although we have
focussed mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter
you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain
temples too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind
that religious shrines were also made for many local cults
in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone
the ancient or medieval shrines in those areas have also
vanished.
Early Temples
While construction of stupas
continued, Brahmanical temples
and images of gods also started
getting constructed. Often
temples were decorated with the
images of gods. Myths mentioned
in the Puranas became part of
narrative representation of the
Brahmanical religion. Each
temple had a principal image of
a god. The shrines of the temples
were of three kinds—(i) sandhara
type (without pradikshinapatha),
(ii) nirandhara type (with
pradakshinapatha), and (iii)
sarvatobhadra (which can be
accessed from all sides). Some
of the important temple sites of
this period are Deogarh in Uttar
Chatur Mukhlinga,
Nachna- Kuthara (Inset)
Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 70
Kalasha
Amalaka
Garbhagriha
Pitha
Shikhara
Nagara temple
Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha
in Madhya Pradesh. These temples are simple structures
consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.
THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the
following: (i) sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’),
which was a small cubicle with a single entrance and
grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is
made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention; (ii) the entrance to the temple
which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers
and is known as a mandapa; (iii) freestanding temples
tend to have a mountain-like spire, which can take the
shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal
tower, called a vimana, in South India; (iv) the vahan,
i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along
with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before
the sanctum. Two broad orders of temples in the country
are known— Nagara in the north and Dravida in the
south. At times, the Vesar style of temples as an
independent style created through the selective mixing
of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some
scholars. Elaborate studies are available on the various
sub-styles within these orders. We will look into the
differences in the forms further on in this chapter. As
temples grew more complex, more surfaces were created
for sculpture through additive geometry, i.e., by adding
more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical
walls and niches, without breaking away from the
fundamental plan of the shrine.
SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND ORNAMENTATION
The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art
history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification
of images based on certain symbols and mythologies
associated with them. And very often, while the
fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain
the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be
a response to its local or immediate social, political or
geographical context.
Every region and period produced its own distinct style
of images with its regional variations in iconography. The
temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament
that form a fundamental part of its conception. The
placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned:
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 4


Temple architecture in India
        (Outline map not to scale)
Rationalised 2023-24
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
AND SCULPTURE
6
Today when we say 'temple'
in English we generally
mean a devalaya, devkula
mandir , kovil, deol,
devasthanam or prasada
depending on which part of
India we are in.
M
OST of the art and architectural remains that survive
from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in
nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in
their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and
the things in them were mostly made from materials like
wood and clay which have perished. This chapter introduces
us to many types of temples from India. Although we have
focussed mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter
you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain
temples too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind
that religious shrines were also made for many local cults
in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone
the ancient or medieval shrines in those areas have also
vanished.
Early Temples
While construction of stupas
continued, Brahmanical temples
and images of gods also started
getting constructed. Often
temples were decorated with the
images of gods. Myths mentioned
in the Puranas became part of
narrative representation of the
Brahmanical religion. Each
temple had a principal image of
a god. The shrines of the temples
were of three kinds—(i) sandhara
type (without pradikshinapatha),
(ii) nirandhara type (with
pradakshinapatha), and (iii)
sarvatobhadra (which can be
accessed from all sides). Some
of the important temple sites of
this period are Deogarh in Uttar
Chatur Mukhlinga,
Nachna- Kuthara (Inset)
Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 70
Kalasha
Amalaka
Garbhagriha
Pitha
Shikhara
Nagara temple
Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha
in Madhya Pradesh. These temples are simple structures
consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.
THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the
following: (i) sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’),
which was a small cubicle with a single entrance and
grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is
made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention; (ii) the entrance to the temple
which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers
and is known as a mandapa; (iii) freestanding temples
tend to have a mountain-like spire, which can take the
shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal
tower, called a vimana, in South India; (iv) the vahan,
i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along
with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before
the sanctum. Two broad orders of temples in the country
are known— Nagara in the north and Dravida in the
south. At times, the Vesar style of temples as an
independent style created through the selective mixing
of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some
scholars. Elaborate studies are available on the various
sub-styles within these orders. We will look into the
differences in the forms further on in this chapter. As
temples grew more complex, more surfaces were created
for sculpture through additive geometry, i.e., by adding
more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical
walls and niches, without breaking away from the
fundamental plan of the shrine.
SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND ORNAMENTATION
The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art
history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification
of images based on certain symbols and mythologies
associated with them. And very often, while the
fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain
the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be
a response to its local or immediate social, political or
geographical context.
Every region and period produced its own distinct style
of images with its regional variations in iconography. The
temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament
that form a fundamental part of its conception. The
placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned:
Rationalised 2023-24
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE 71
for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are
usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara
temple, dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the
gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly,
mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious
planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard
them. Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to
be found on the outer walls of the sanctum. The deities of
directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key
directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on
the outer walls of a temple. Subsidiary shrines around the
main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of
the main deity. Finally, various elements of ornamentation
such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha,
etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.
THE NAGARA OR NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE
The style of temple architecture that became popular in
northern India is known as nagara. In North India it is
common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform
with steps leading up to it. Further, unlike in South India
it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or
gateways. While the earliest temples had just one tower, or
shikhara, later temples had several. The garbhagriha is
always located directly under the tallest tower.
There are many subdivisions of nagara temples
depending on the shape of the shikhara. There are different
names for the various parts of the temple in different parts
Sun temple, Konark
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 5


Temple architecture in India
        (Outline map not to scale)
Rationalised 2023-24
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
AND SCULPTURE
6
Today when we say 'temple'
in English we generally
mean a devalaya, devkula
mandir , kovil, deol,
devasthanam or prasada
depending on which part of
India we are in.
M
OST of the art and architectural remains that survive
from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in
nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in
their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and
the things in them were mostly made from materials like
wood and clay which have perished. This chapter introduces
us to many types of temples from India. Although we have
focussed mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter
you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain
temples too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind
that religious shrines were also made for many local cults
in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone
the ancient or medieval shrines in those areas have also
vanished.
Early Temples
While construction of stupas
continued, Brahmanical temples
and images of gods also started
getting constructed. Often
temples were decorated with the
images of gods. Myths mentioned
in the Puranas became part of
narrative representation of the
Brahmanical religion. Each
temple had a principal image of
a god. The shrines of the temples
were of three kinds—(i) sandhara
type (without pradikshinapatha),
(ii) nirandhara type (with
pradakshinapatha), and (iii)
sarvatobhadra (which can be
accessed from all sides). Some
of the important temple sites of
this period are Deogarh in Uttar
Chatur Mukhlinga,
Nachna- Kuthara (Inset)
Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 70
Kalasha
Amalaka
Garbhagriha
Pitha
Shikhara
Nagara temple
Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha
in Madhya Pradesh. These temples are simple structures
consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.
THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the
following: (i) sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’),
which was a small cubicle with a single entrance and
grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is
made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention; (ii) the entrance to the temple
which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers
and is known as a mandapa; (iii) freestanding temples
tend to have a mountain-like spire, which can take the
shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal
tower, called a vimana, in South India; (iv) the vahan,
i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along
with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before
the sanctum. Two broad orders of temples in the country
are known— Nagara in the north and Dravida in the
south. At times, the Vesar style of temples as an
independent style created through the selective mixing
of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some
scholars. Elaborate studies are available on the various
sub-styles within these orders. We will look into the
differences in the forms further on in this chapter. As
temples grew more complex, more surfaces were created
for sculpture through additive geometry, i.e., by adding
more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical
walls and niches, without breaking away from the
fundamental plan of the shrine.
SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND ORNAMENTATION
The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art
history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification
of images based on certain symbols and mythologies
associated with them. And very often, while the
fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain
the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be
a response to its local or immediate social, political or
geographical context.
Every region and period produced its own distinct style
of images with its regional variations in iconography. The
temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament
that form a fundamental part of its conception. The
placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned:
Rationalised 2023-24
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE 71
for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are
usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara
temple, dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the
gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly,
mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious
planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard
them. Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to
be found on the outer walls of the sanctum. The deities of
directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key
directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on
the outer walls of a temple. Subsidiary shrines around the
main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of
the main deity. Finally, various elements of ornamentation
such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha,
etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.
THE NAGARA OR NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE
The style of temple architecture that became popular in
northern India is known as nagara. In North India it is
common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform
with steps leading up to it. Further, unlike in South India
it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or
gateways. While the earliest temples had just one tower, or
shikhara, later temples had several. The garbhagriha is
always located directly under the tallest tower.
There are many subdivisions of nagara temples
depending on the shape of the shikhara. There are different
names for the various parts of the temple in different parts
Sun temple, Konark
Rationalised 2023-24
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 72
of India; however, the most common name for the simple
shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls
curve or slope inward to a point on top is called the 'latina'
or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
The second major type of architectural form in the nagara
order is the phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be
broader and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are
composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point
over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which
look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not
curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight
incline. In many North Indian temples you will notice that
the phamsana design is used for the mandapas while the
main garbhagriha is housed in a latina building. Later on,
the latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing
like a single tall tower, the temple began to support many
smaller towers, which were clustered together like rising
mountain-peaks with the tallest one being in the centre,
and this was the one which was always above the
garbhagriha.
The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what
is generally called the valabhi type. These are rectangular
buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the
bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by
bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called ‘wagon-
vaulted buildings’. As mentioned above, the form of the
temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were
already in existence before the fifth century CE. The valabhi
type of building was one of them. For instance, if you study
Sheshashayana Vishnu, Dashavatara temple, Deogarh
Dashavtara Vishnu
temple, Deogarh,
fifth century CE
Rationalised 2023-24