NCERT Textbook: Thinking | Psychology for UPSC Optional (Notes) PDF Download

 Page 1


Chapter
7
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
• describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
• demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
• understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
• understand the relationship between language and thought, and
• describe the process of language development and its use.
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Thought and Language
Development of Language and Language Use
 Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
But whatever the process, the result is
wonderful, gradually from naming an
object we advance step-by-step until
we have traversed the vast difference
between our first stammered syllable
and the sweep of thought in a
line of Shakespeare.
– Helen Keller
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 2


Chapter
7
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
• describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
• demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
• understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
• understand the relationship between language and thought, and
• describe the process of language development and its use.
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Thought and Language
Development of Language and Language Use
 Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
But whatever the process, the result is
wonderful, gradually from naming an
object we advance step-by-step until
we have traversed the vast difference
between our first stammered syllable
and the sweep of thought in a
line of Shakespeare.
– Helen Keller
Rationalised 2023-24
Psychology
110
Thinking is mostly organised and goal
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
One desires to reach the goal by planning,
recalling the steps that one has already
followed in the past if the task is familiar or
inferring strategies if the task is new.
Thinking is an internal mental process,
which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
for several minutes before making a move, you
cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
simply infer what he was thinking or what
strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
next move.
Building Blocks of Thought
We already know that thinking relies on
knowledge we already possess. Such
knowledge is represented either in the form
of mental images or words. People usually
NATURE OF THINKING
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities
or processes and is unique to human beings.
It involves manipulation and analysis of
information received from the environment.
For example, while seeing a painting, you are
not simply focusing on the colour of the
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you
are going beyond the given text in interpreting
its meaning and you are trying to relate the
information to your existing knowledge.
Understanding of the painting involves
creation of new meaning that is added to your
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing
information. Such manipulation and analysis
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning,
imagining, problem solving, judging, and
decision-making.
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.
Introduction
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 3


Chapter
7
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
• describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
• demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
• understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
• understand the relationship between language and thought, and
• describe the process of language development and its use.
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Thought and Language
Development of Language and Language Use
 Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
But whatever the process, the result is
wonderful, gradually from naming an
object we advance step-by-step until
we have traversed the vast difference
between our first stammered syllable
and the sweep of thought in a
line of Shakespeare.
– Helen Keller
Rationalised 2023-24
Psychology
110
Thinking is mostly organised and goal
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
One desires to reach the goal by planning,
recalling the steps that one has already
followed in the past if the task is familiar or
inferring strategies if the task is new.
Thinking is an internal mental process,
which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
for several minutes before making a move, you
cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
simply infer what he was thinking or what
strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
next move.
Building Blocks of Thought
We already know that thinking relies on
knowledge we already possess. Such
knowledge is represented either in the form
of mental images or words. People usually
NATURE OF THINKING
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities
or processes and is unique to human beings.
It involves manipulation and analysis of
information received from the environment.
For example, while seeing a painting, you are
not simply focusing on the colour of the
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you
are going beyond the given text in interpreting
its meaning and you are trying to relate the
information to your existing knowledge.
Understanding of the painting involves
creation of new meaning that is added to your
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing
information. Such manipulation and analysis
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning,
imagining, problem solving, judging, and
decision-making.
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.
Introduction
Rationalised 2023-24
Chapter 7 • Thinking
111
think by means of mental images or words.
Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a
place, which you had visited long back. You
would try to use the visual representation of
the street and other places. On the other hand,
when you want to buy a storybook your choice
would depend upon your knowledge about
different authors, themes, etc. Here, your
thinking is based on words or concepts. We
shall first discuss mental image and then move
on to concepts as the base of human thought.
Mental Image
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and
curved. You would most likely try to form a
visual image of the whole situation,
something similar to what the girl in the
picture is doing (Fig.7.1). Or think of another
situation where you are asked to imagine
yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal
and describe what you see. While doing this
you are actually forming a visual image of
the event. You are probably trying to see
through your mind’s eye, just like the way
you would see a picture. Why is it useful to
draw a map while giving directions to
someone? Try to remember your earlier
experience in reading a map, remembering the
different places and subsequently locating
them in a physical map in your examination.
In doing this, you were mostly forming and
using mental images. An image is a mental
representation of a sensory experience; it
can be used to think about things, places,
and events. You can try out Activity 7.1, which
demonstrates how images are formed.
Give a map, like the following in Fig.7.2a, to your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
marked places in a blank map. Then present a
map, like the one in Fig.7.2b, with no indications
of the different places. Ask your friend to locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he
will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.
Activity Activity Activity Activity Activity     7.1
Concepts
Whenever we come across an object or event
familiar or unfamiliar, we try to identify the
object or event by extracting its characteristics,
matching it with the already existing category
of objects and events. For example, when we
see an apple, we categorise it as fruit, when
we see a table we categorise it as furniture,
when we see a dog we categorise it as an
Fig.7.2a : A Map Showing Places
Fig.7.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 4


Chapter
7
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
• describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
• demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
• understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
• understand the relationship between language and thought, and
• describe the process of language development and its use.
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Thought and Language
Development of Language and Language Use
 Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
But whatever the process, the result is
wonderful, gradually from naming an
object we advance step-by-step until
we have traversed the vast difference
between our first stammered syllable
and the sweep of thought in a
line of Shakespeare.
– Helen Keller
Rationalised 2023-24
Psychology
110
Thinking is mostly organised and goal
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
One desires to reach the goal by planning,
recalling the steps that one has already
followed in the past if the task is familiar or
inferring strategies if the task is new.
Thinking is an internal mental process,
which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
for several minutes before making a move, you
cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
simply infer what he was thinking or what
strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
next move.
Building Blocks of Thought
We already know that thinking relies on
knowledge we already possess. Such
knowledge is represented either in the form
of mental images or words. People usually
NATURE OF THINKING
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities
or processes and is unique to human beings.
It involves manipulation and analysis of
information received from the environment.
For example, while seeing a painting, you are
not simply focusing on the colour of the
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you
are going beyond the given text in interpreting
its meaning and you are trying to relate the
information to your existing knowledge.
Understanding of the painting involves
creation of new meaning that is added to your
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing
information. Such manipulation and analysis
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning,
imagining, problem solving, judging, and
decision-making.
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.
Introduction
Rationalised 2023-24
Chapter 7 • Thinking
111
think by means of mental images or words.
Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a
place, which you had visited long back. You
would try to use the visual representation of
the street and other places. On the other hand,
when you want to buy a storybook your choice
would depend upon your knowledge about
different authors, themes, etc. Here, your
thinking is based on words or concepts. We
shall first discuss mental image and then move
on to concepts as the base of human thought.
Mental Image
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and
curved. You would most likely try to form a
visual image of the whole situation,
something similar to what the girl in the
picture is doing (Fig.7.1). Or think of another
situation where you are asked to imagine
yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal
and describe what you see. While doing this
you are actually forming a visual image of
the event. You are probably trying to see
through your mind’s eye, just like the way
you would see a picture. Why is it useful to
draw a map while giving directions to
someone? Try to remember your earlier
experience in reading a map, remembering the
different places and subsequently locating
them in a physical map in your examination.
In doing this, you were mostly forming and
using mental images. An image is a mental
representation of a sensory experience; it
can be used to think about things, places,
and events. You can try out Activity 7.1, which
demonstrates how images are formed.
Give a map, like the following in Fig.7.2a, to your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
marked places in a blank map. Then present a
map, like the one in Fig.7.2b, with no indications
of the different places. Ask your friend to locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he
will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.
Activity Activity Activity Activity Activity     7.1
Concepts
Whenever we come across an object or event
familiar or unfamiliar, we try to identify the
object or event by extracting its characteristics,
matching it with the already existing category
of objects and events. For example, when we
see an apple, we categorise it as fruit, when
we see a table we categorise it as furniture,
when we see a dog we categorise it as an
Fig.7.2a : A Map Showing Places
Fig.7.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image
Rationalised 2023-24
Psychology
112
animal, and so on. When we see a new object,
we try to look for its characteristics, match
them with characteristics of an existing
category, and if matching is perfect we give it
the name of that category. For example, while
walking on the road you come across an
unfamiliar quadruped of a very small size, with
a face like a dog, wagging its tail and barking
at strangers. You would no doubt identify it
as a dog and probably think that it is of a new
breed, which you have never seen before. You
would also conclude that it would bite
strangers. A concept thus, is a mental
representation of a category. It refers to a class
of objects, ideas or events that share common
properties.
Why do we need to form concepts?
Concept formation helps us in organising our
knowledge so that whenever we need to
access our knowledge, we can do it with less
time and effort. It is something similar to what
we do to organise our things at home.
Children who are very systematic and
organised, put their things such as books,
note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories
in specific places in their cupboard, so that
in the morning, they don’t have to struggle to
find a particular book or the geometry box.
In the library too you have seen books
organised as per subject areas and labelled
so that you would be able to find them quickly
with less effort. Thus, for making our thought
process quick and efficient, we form concepts
and categorise objects and events.
THE PROCESSES OF THINKING
So far we have been discussing what we mean
by thinking and what is the nature of thinking.
Fig.7.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down
Our beliefs, values, and social practices influence
the way we think. In a study conducted on
American and Asian students, pictures like the
following (underwater scene) were used. The
subjects were asked to have a look at the scene
for a brief period and then were asked to describe
what they saw. The American students focussed
on the biggest, brightest, and most outstanding
features (for example, “the large fish swimming
to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese students
focussed on the background (for example, “the
bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”).
Based on these kinds of findings, researchers
concluded that Americans usually analyse each
Box Box Box Box Box 7.1 Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking
object separately which is called “analytical thinking”.
Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) think more
about the relationship between objects and
backgrounds, which is called “holistic thinking”.
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 5


Chapter
7
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking
• describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
• demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
• understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
• understand the relationship between language and thought, and
• describe the process of language development and its use.
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Thought and Language
Development of Language and Language Use
 Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
But whatever the process, the result is
wonderful, gradually from naming an
object we advance step-by-step until
we have traversed the vast difference
between our first stammered syllable
and the sweep of thought in a
line of Shakespeare.
– Helen Keller
Rationalised 2023-24
Psychology
110
Thinking is mostly organised and goal
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
One desires to reach the goal by planning,
recalling the steps that one has already
followed in the past if the task is familiar or
inferring strategies if the task is new.
Thinking is an internal mental process,
which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
for several minutes before making a move, you
cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
simply infer what he was thinking or what
strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
next move.
Building Blocks of Thought
We already know that thinking relies on
knowledge we already possess. Such
knowledge is represented either in the form
of mental images or words. People usually
NATURE OF THINKING
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities
or processes and is unique to human beings.
It involves manipulation and analysis of
information received from the environment.
For example, while seeing a painting, you are
not simply focusing on the colour of the
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you
are going beyond the given text in interpreting
its meaning and you are trying to relate the
information to your existing knowledge.
Understanding of the painting involves
creation of new meaning that is added to your
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing
information. Such manipulation and analysis
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning,
imagining, problem solving, judging, and
decision-making.
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.
Introduction
Rationalised 2023-24
Chapter 7 • Thinking
111
think by means of mental images or words.
Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a
place, which you had visited long back. You
would try to use the visual representation of
the street and other places. On the other hand,
when you want to buy a storybook your choice
would depend upon your knowledge about
different authors, themes, etc. Here, your
thinking is based on words or concepts. We
shall first discuss mental image and then move
on to concepts as the base of human thought.
Mental Image
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and
curved. You would most likely try to form a
visual image of the whole situation,
something similar to what the girl in the
picture is doing (Fig.7.1). Or think of another
situation where you are asked to imagine
yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal
and describe what you see. While doing this
you are actually forming a visual image of
the event. You are probably trying to see
through your mind’s eye, just like the way
you would see a picture. Why is it useful to
draw a map while giving directions to
someone? Try to remember your earlier
experience in reading a map, remembering the
different places and subsequently locating
them in a physical map in your examination.
In doing this, you were mostly forming and
using mental images. An image is a mental
representation of a sensory experience; it
can be used to think about things, places,
and events. You can try out Activity 7.1, which
demonstrates how images are formed.
Give a map, like the following in Fig.7.2a, to your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
marked places in a blank map. Then present a
map, like the one in Fig.7.2b, with no indications
of the different places. Ask your friend to locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he
will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.
Activity Activity Activity Activity Activity     7.1
Concepts
Whenever we come across an object or event
familiar or unfamiliar, we try to identify the
object or event by extracting its characteristics,
matching it with the already existing category
of objects and events. For example, when we
see an apple, we categorise it as fruit, when
we see a table we categorise it as furniture,
when we see a dog we categorise it as an
Fig.7.2a : A Map Showing Places
Fig.7.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image
Rationalised 2023-24
Psychology
112
animal, and so on. When we see a new object,
we try to look for its characteristics, match
them with characteristics of an existing
category, and if matching is perfect we give it
the name of that category. For example, while
walking on the road you come across an
unfamiliar quadruped of a very small size, with
a face like a dog, wagging its tail and barking
at strangers. You would no doubt identify it
as a dog and probably think that it is of a new
breed, which you have never seen before. You
would also conclude that it would bite
strangers. A concept thus, is a mental
representation of a category. It refers to a class
of objects, ideas or events that share common
properties.
Why do we need to form concepts?
Concept formation helps us in organising our
knowledge so that whenever we need to
access our knowledge, we can do it with less
time and effort. It is something similar to what
we do to organise our things at home.
Children who are very systematic and
organised, put their things such as books,
note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories
in specific places in their cupboard, so that
in the morning, they don’t have to struggle to
find a particular book or the geometry box.
In the library too you have seen books
organised as per subject areas and labelled
so that you would be able to find them quickly
with less effort. Thus, for making our thought
process quick and efficient, we form concepts
and categorise objects and events.
THE PROCESSES OF THINKING
So far we have been discussing what we mean
by thinking and what is the nature of thinking.
Fig.7.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down
Our beliefs, values, and social practices influence
the way we think. In a study conducted on
American and Asian students, pictures like the
following (underwater scene) were used. The
subjects were asked to have a look at the scene
for a brief period and then were asked to describe
what they saw. The American students focussed
on the biggest, brightest, and most outstanding
features (for example, “the large fish swimming
to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese students
focussed on the background (for example, “the
bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”).
Based on these kinds of findings, researchers
concluded that Americans usually analyse each
Box Box Box Box Box 7.1 Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking Culture and Thinking
object separately which is called “analytical thinking”.
Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) think more
about the relationship between objects and
backgrounds, which is called “holistic thinking”.
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Chapter 7 • Thinking
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friend who has just arrived at your place. In
problem solving there is an initial state (i.e. the
problem) and there is an end state (the goal).
These two anchors are connected by means of
several steps or mental operations. Table 7.1
would clarify your understanding of various
steps through which one solves a problem.
You can try out the problems given in
Activity 7.2 with your friends and observe how
they are approaching the problem. You can ask
them the steps they follow while solving these
problems.
Obstacles to Solving Problems
Two major obstacles to solving a problem are
mental set and lack of motivation.
Mental Set
Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve
problems by following already tried mental
operations or steps. Prior success with a
We also learnt that thinking uses mental
images and concepts as the base. Now we will
discuss how thinking proceeds in a particular
area: problem solving.
PROBLEM SOLVING
How do we proceed while repairing a broken
cycle, or planning a summer tour or patching
up a broken friendship? In some cases the
solution is reached quickly as in repair of a
bicycle based on immediately available cues
whereas others are more complex and require
time and effort. Problem solving is thinking that
is goal-directed. Almost all our day-to-day
activities are directed towards a goal. Here it is
important to know that problems are not
always in the form of obstacles or hurdles that
one faces. It could be any simple activity that
you perform to reach a defined goal, for
example, preparing a quick snack for your
Let us look at the problem of organising a play in school on the occasion of Teachers’ Day.
Problem solving would involve the following sequence.
Mental operation Nature of problem
1. Identify the problem A week is left for teachers’ day and you are given
the task of organising a play.
2. Represent the problem Organising a play would involve identification of
an appropriate theme, screening of actors,
actresses, arranging  money, etc.
3. Plan the solution: Search and survey various available themes for
Set sub-goals a play, and consult teachers and friends who have
the expertise. The play to be decided, based on
such considerations as cost, duration, suitability
for the occasion, etc.
4. Evaluate all solutions (plays) Collect all the information/stage rehearsal.
5. Select one solution and execute it Compare and verify the various options to get the
best solution (the play).
6. Evaluate the outcome If the play (solution) is appreciated, think about
the steps you have followed for future reference
for yourself as well as for your friends.
7. Rethink and redefine problems After this special occasion you can still think about
and solutions ways to plan a better play in future.
T T T T Table able able able able 7.1 Mental Operations Mental Operations Mental Operations Mental Operations Mental Operations I I I I Involved in Solving a P nvolved in Solving a P nvolved in Solving a P nvolved in Solving a P nvolved in Solving a Problem roblem roblem roblem roblem
Rationalised 2023-24