Society and Economy- during the Bhaumakara, Somavamsis and the Ganga Period | Odisha State PSC (OPSC): Preparation - OPSC OCS (Odisha) PDF Download

 Page 1


156 
 
4.2.4. Conclusion  
4.2.5. Summary  
4.2.6. Exercise 
4.2.7. Further Readings 
4.2.0. Objectives 
In this lesson, students explore the society and economy during the Bhaumakara, the Somavamsis and the 
Ganga period. After completing this chapter, you will be able to: 
 
 
 
 
 
Introduction  
Change and continuity has been the way of social life in ancient and medieval Odisha 
along with the rise and fall of empires in Odisha. The glorious rule of the Bhauma-Karas, the 
Somavamsis, and the Gangas, contributed a lot to preserve the social and economic structure of 
this land. With the gradual march of time, besides the four traditional castes, many sub-castes 
emerged in the Odishan society. The agrahara villages granted to Brahmins by different kings of 
various dynasties, gave vent to the progress of education. The villages of Odisha became the 
centres around which evolved the social life of its people. Their dress, profession, hobby, 
learning etc. form the main theme of the social and economic life in Odisha 
Society and economy during the Bhaumakara 
The inscriptions of the Bhaumakaras gives us the knowledge regarding the society and 
economy during the Bhaumakara period. 
 Society during the Bhaumakara 
Society underwent changes during ancient and medieval Odisha. Although the Bhauma 
rulers were Buddhists, they accepted the Brahmanical socio-religious order. They tried to enforce 
the Varnashrama, i.e., division of society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and 
Shudra). The Neulpur charter of Subhakaradeva I states that Kshemankardeva put Varnas in their 
proper places. The Terundia charter of Subhakaradeva II states that he established the 
Varnashrama system in accordance with the scriptures. As the Bhauma rulers accepted the 
Varnashrama urder, they attached great importance to the Brahmanas, the highest Varna. They 
Page 2


156 
 
4.2.4. Conclusion  
4.2.5. Summary  
4.2.6. Exercise 
4.2.7. Further Readings 
4.2.0. Objectives 
In this lesson, students explore the society and economy during the Bhaumakara, the Somavamsis and the 
Ganga period. After completing this chapter, you will be able to: 
 
 
 
 
 
Introduction  
Change and continuity has been the way of social life in ancient and medieval Odisha 
along with the rise and fall of empires in Odisha. The glorious rule of the Bhauma-Karas, the 
Somavamsis, and the Gangas, contributed a lot to preserve the social and economic structure of 
this land. With the gradual march of time, besides the four traditional castes, many sub-castes 
emerged in the Odishan society. The agrahara villages granted to Brahmins by different kings of 
various dynasties, gave vent to the progress of education. The villages of Odisha became the 
centres around which evolved the social life of its people. Their dress, profession, hobby, 
learning etc. form the main theme of the social and economic life in Odisha 
Society and economy during the Bhaumakara 
The inscriptions of the Bhaumakaras gives us the knowledge regarding the society and 
economy during the Bhaumakara period. 
 Society during the Bhaumakara 
Society underwent changes during ancient and medieval Odisha. Although the Bhauma 
rulers were Buddhists, they accepted the Brahmanical socio-religious order. They tried to enforce 
the Varnashrama, i.e., division of society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and 
Shudra). The Neulpur charter of Subhakaradeva I states that Kshemankardeva put Varnas in their 
proper places. The Terundia charter of Subhakaradeva II states that he established the 
Varnashrama system in accordance with the scriptures. As the Bhauma rulers accepted the 
Varnashrama urder, they attached great importance to the Brahmanas, the highest Varna. They 
 
encouraged immigration of Brahmans from Madhyadesa (north India) and Bengal by the offer of 
land grants.  
 
The Social Structure : Caste system 
Let us know the social structure of caste system during the Bhaumakara period. One of 
the notable feature of ancient Indian society was the caste system. The Odishan society was not 
an exception to it. It consisted of numerous castes and sub-castes and the interaction among them 
brought social harmony bringing peace and tranquility in the Odishan society. The caste structure 
of the society of the Bhaumakara period is given bellow: 
 The Brahmins 
In the Varna system, the Brahmins enjoyed the highest position in the society of  and 
belonged to the first order. They commanded respect from the people in the society by their 
learning, prudence, pious character and other virtuous qualities. It is known from many 
inscriptions  of the Bhauma-Karas that Brahmins belonging to several gotras like Bharadwaja, 
Kausika, Visvamitra, Sandilya, Kashyapa, Atreya, etc. settled in Odisha. They settled in the 
Shasanas (agrahara villages) as is known from numerous inscriptions belonging to the Ganga 
and Suryavamsi Gajapati period. They received land grants from the kings and other landed 
aristocrats to worship gods and goddesses in different temples. Those lands were tax free lands. 
Further, they were also indispensable for many important ceremonies like the Abhiseka 
(coronation ceremony) of the king, marriage, upanayana (sacred thread ceremony) etc. By their 
noble works as priests, they commanded respect of the society and were placed in the highest 
position in the caste structure. Besides discharging their duties as priests, the Brahmins also got 
lucrative posts in the courts of the kings and Zamindars.   
 The Kshatriyas 
The Kshatriyas occupied their position in the society next to the Brahmins. They were 
warrior class and shouldered the responsibility to protect the country from internal rebellion and 
external aggression. Besides fighting they administered the country. As the inscriptions and 
literary sources of this land refer, they were benevolent rulers not despots or autocrats. They had 
great veneration towards the Brahmins from whom they sought advice to carry on 
administration. They were great builders. By receiving their patronage, a good number of 
temples were built up in Odisha. They were famous for their charity. The digging of tanks, 
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156 
 
4.2.4. Conclusion  
4.2.5. Summary  
4.2.6. Exercise 
4.2.7. Further Readings 
4.2.0. Objectives 
In this lesson, students explore the society and economy during the Bhaumakara, the Somavamsis and the 
Ganga period. After completing this chapter, you will be able to: 
 
 
 
 
 
Introduction  
Change and continuity has been the way of social life in ancient and medieval Odisha 
along with the rise and fall of empires in Odisha. The glorious rule of the Bhauma-Karas, the 
Somavamsis, and the Gangas, contributed a lot to preserve the social and economic structure of 
this land. With the gradual march of time, besides the four traditional castes, many sub-castes 
emerged in the Odishan society. The agrahara villages granted to Brahmins by different kings of 
various dynasties, gave vent to the progress of education. The villages of Odisha became the 
centres around which evolved the social life of its people. Their dress, profession, hobby, 
learning etc. form the main theme of the social and economic life in Odisha 
Society and economy during the Bhaumakara 
The inscriptions of the Bhaumakaras gives us the knowledge regarding the society and 
economy during the Bhaumakara period. 
 Society during the Bhaumakara 
Society underwent changes during ancient and medieval Odisha. Although the Bhauma 
rulers were Buddhists, they accepted the Brahmanical socio-religious order. They tried to enforce 
the Varnashrama, i.e., division of society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and 
Shudra). The Neulpur charter of Subhakaradeva I states that Kshemankardeva put Varnas in their 
proper places. The Terundia charter of Subhakaradeva II states that he established the 
Varnashrama system in accordance with the scriptures. As the Bhauma rulers accepted the 
Varnashrama urder, they attached great importance to the Brahmanas, the highest Varna. They 
 
encouraged immigration of Brahmans from Madhyadesa (north India) and Bengal by the offer of 
land grants.  
 
The Social Structure : Caste system 
Let us know the social structure of caste system during the Bhaumakara period. One of 
the notable feature of ancient Indian society was the caste system. The Odishan society was not 
an exception to it. It consisted of numerous castes and sub-castes and the interaction among them 
brought social harmony bringing peace and tranquility in the Odishan society. The caste structure 
of the society of the Bhaumakara period is given bellow: 
 The Brahmins 
In the Varna system, the Brahmins enjoyed the highest position in the society of  and 
belonged to the first order. They commanded respect from the people in the society by their 
learning, prudence, pious character and other virtuous qualities. It is known from many 
inscriptions  of the Bhauma-Karas that Brahmins belonging to several gotras like Bharadwaja, 
Kausika, Visvamitra, Sandilya, Kashyapa, Atreya, etc. settled in Odisha. They settled in the 
Shasanas (agrahara villages) as is known from numerous inscriptions belonging to the Ganga 
and Suryavamsi Gajapati period. They received land grants from the kings and other landed 
aristocrats to worship gods and goddesses in different temples. Those lands were tax free lands. 
Further, they were also indispensable for many important ceremonies like the Abhiseka 
(coronation ceremony) of the king, marriage, upanayana (sacred thread ceremony) etc. By their 
noble works as priests, they commanded respect of the society and were placed in the highest 
position in the caste structure. Besides discharging their duties as priests, the Brahmins also got 
lucrative posts in the courts of the kings and Zamindars.   
 The Kshatriyas 
The Kshatriyas occupied their position in the society next to the Brahmins. They were 
warrior class and shouldered the responsibility to protect the country from internal rebellion and 
external aggression. Besides fighting they administered the country. As the inscriptions and 
literary sources of this land refer, they were benevolent rulers not despots or autocrats. They had 
great veneration towards the Brahmins from whom they sought advice to carry on 
administration. They were great builders. By receiving their patronage, a good number of 
temples were built up in Odisha. They were famous for their charity. The digging of tanks, 
 
establishment of Shasanas, educational institutions etc. were also their look out. They also took 
interest in the promotion of learning inside the society. Besides the kings and members of the 
royal family, the army chiefs, soldiers and other officials belonged to the Kshatriya caste.  The 
Kshatriyas looked for the welfare of the subjects of the society 
The Vaisyas 
The Vaisyas belonged to trading class who resorted to cultivation, cowherdship, trade and 
commerce. Generally, prosperity of the land depended largely upon the people of this 
community. They organised hatas (local markets) and controlled both inland and maritime trade. 
From the time of Asoka, it is evident that trade routes on land passed to distant South via Kalinga 
and it monopolised the trade and commerce and her economic prosperity had become an eyesore 
to Kalinga. This was possible due to the trading class (Vaisyas) in the ancient and medieval 
Odisha. Further, the Vaisyas of Odisha carried on oversea trade with the countries like Ceylon, 
Siam, Burma, Suvarnadvipa etc. and brought wealth to this land. They also helped in spreading 
the Odishan culture in South-East Asia. The Kshatriyas also paid attention for the growth of the 
Vaisyas. The kings granted special villages for them known as the' Vaisya agrahara.   
The Sudras 
In the traditional class structure, the Sudras occupied the lowest position. The Sudras 
were drawn from the community that consisted of artisans, craftsmen, petty agriculturists, 
servants etc.   Even, they were attached to the temples to serve the gods and goddesses.  Besides 
the above mentioned professions, some Sudras were untouchables. They were untouchables and 
remained outside the society. However, they served the society in various capacities. Among 
them were the washerman (rajaka), fisherman , (kaivartta), shoe-maker (charmakara), basket-
maker (doma) etc.   Besides Sudras, other sub-castes in the society were saundikas (brewers), 
tantuvayas (weavers), kumbhakaras (potters), malakaras (gardeners), napita (barber), 
tambarakara (coppersmith), tathakara (metal worker), kamara (blacksmith) etc. who rendered 
their habitual service to the society. 
Promotion of Language and learning 
Sanskrit language was used in the inscriptions and literature of the Bhaumakara period. 
The Buddhist manuscript, Gandavyuha was written in Sanskrit. The Bhauma rulers were learned 
and cultured who extended their patronage to the institutions of learning. The monastery of 
Ratnagiri was one of the greatest centres of Buddhist learning in medieval lndia, and attracted 
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156 
 
4.2.4. Conclusion  
4.2.5. Summary  
4.2.6. Exercise 
4.2.7. Further Readings 
4.2.0. Objectives 
In this lesson, students explore the society and economy during the Bhaumakara, the Somavamsis and the 
Ganga period. After completing this chapter, you will be able to: 
 
 
 
 
 
Introduction  
Change and continuity has been the way of social life in ancient and medieval Odisha 
along with the rise and fall of empires in Odisha. The glorious rule of the Bhauma-Karas, the 
Somavamsis, and the Gangas, contributed a lot to preserve the social and economic structure of 
this land. With the gradual march of time, besides the four traditional castes, many sub-castes 
emerged in the Odishan society. The agrahara villages granted to Brahmins by different kings of 
various dynasties, gave vent to the progress of education. The villages of Odisha became the 
centres around which evolved the social life of its people. Their dress, profession, hobby, 
learning etc. form the main theme of the social and economic life in Odisha 
Society and economy during the Bhaumakara 
The inscriptions of the Bhaumakaras gives us the knowledge regarding the society and 
economy during the Bhaumakara period. 
 Society during the Bhaumakara 
Society underwent changes during ancient and medieval Odisha. Although the Bhauma 
rulers were Buddhists, they accepted the Brahmanical socio-religious order. They tried to enforce 
the Varnashrama, i.e., division of society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and 
Shudra). The Neulpur charter of Subhakaradeva I states that Kshemankardeva put Varnas in their 
proper places. The Terundia charter of Subhakaradeva II states that he established the 
Varnashrama system in accordance with the scriptures. As the Bhauma rulers accepted the 
Varnashrama urder, they attached great importance to the Brahmanas, the highest Varna. They 
 
encouraged immigration of Brahmans from Madhyadesa (north India) and Bengal by the offer of 
land grants.  
 
The Social Structure : Caste system 
Let us know the social structure of caste system during the Bhaumakara period. One of 
the notable feature of ancient Indian society was the caste system. The Odishan society was not 
an exception to it. It consisted of numerous castes and sub-castes and the interaction among them 
brought social harmony bringing peace and tranquility in the Odishan society. The caste structure 
of the society of the Bhaumakara period is given bellow: 
 The Brahmins 
In the Varna system, the Brahmins enjoyed the highest position in the society of  and 
belonged to the first order. They commanded respect from the people in the society by their 
learning, prudence, pious character and other virtuous qualities. It is known from many 
inscriptions  of the Bhauma-Karas that Brahmins belonging to several gotras like Bharadwaja, 
Kausika, Visvamitra, Sandilya, Kashyapa, Atreya, etc. settled in Odisha. They settled in the 
Shasanas (agrahara villages) as is known from numerous inscriptions belonging to the Ganga 
and Suryavamsi Gajapati period. They received land grants from the kings and other landed 
aristocrats to worship gods and goddesses in different temples. Those lands were tax free lands. 
Further, they were also indispensable for many important ceremonies like the Abhiseka 
(coronation ceremony) of the king, marriage, upanayana (sacred thread ceremony) etc. By their 
noble works as priests, they commanded respect of the society and were placed in the highest 
position in the caste structure. Besides discharging their duties as priests, the Brahmins also got 
lucrative posts in the courts of the kings and Zamindars.   
 The Kshatriyas 
The Kshatriyas occupied their position in the society next to the Brahmins. They were 
warrior class and shouldered the responsibility to protect the country from internal rebellion and 
external aggression. Besides fighting they administered the country. As the inscriptions and 
literary sources of this land refer, they were benevolent rulers not despots or autocrats. They had 
great veneration towards the Brahmins from whom they sought advice to carry on 
administration. They were great builders. By receiving their patronage, a good number of 
temples were built up in Odisha. They were famous for their charity. The digging of tanks, 
 
establishment of Shasanas, educational institutions etc. were also their look out. They also took 
interest in the promotion of learning inside the society. Besides the kings and members of the 
royal family, the army chiefs, soldiers and other officials belonged to the Kshatriya caste.  The 
Kshatriyas looked for the welfare of the subjects of the society 
The Vaisyas 
The Vaisyas belonged to trading class who resorted to cultivation, cowherdship, trade and 
commerce. Generally, prosperity of the land depended largely upon the people of this 
community. They organised hatas (local markets) and controlled both inland and maritime trade. 
From the time of Asoka, it is evident that trade routes on land passed to distant South via Kalinga 
and it monopolised the trade and commerce and her economic prosperity had become an eyesore 
to Kalinga. This was possible due to the trading class (Vaisyas) in the ancient and medieval 
Odisha. Further, the Vaisyas of Odisha carried on oversea trade with the countries like Ceylon, 
Siam, Burma, Suvarnadvipa etc. and brought wealth to this land. They also helped in spreading 
the Odishan culture in South-East Asia. The Kshatriyas also paid attention for the growth of the 
Vaisyas. The kings granted special villages for them known as the' Vaisya agrahara.   
The Sudras 
In the traditional class structure, the Sudras occupied the lowest position. The Sudras 
were drawn from the community that consisted of artisans, craftsmen, petty agriculturists, 
servants etc.   Even, they were attached to the temples to serve the gods and goddesses.  Besides 
the above mentioned professions, some Sudras were untouchables. They were untouchables and 
remained outside the society. However, they served the society in various capacities. Among 
them were the washerman (rajaka), fisherman , (kaivartta), shoe-maker (charmakara), basket-
maker (doma) etc.   Besides Sudras, other sub-castes in the society were saundikas (brewers), 
tantuvayas (weavers), kumbhakaras (potters), malakaras (gardeners), napita (barber), 
tambarakara (coppersmith), tathakara (metal worker), kamara (blacksmith) etc. who rendered 
their habitual service to the society. 
Promotion of Language and learning 
Sanskrit language was used in the inscriptions and literature of the Bhaumakara period. 
The Buddhist manuscript, Gandavyuha was written in Sanskrit. The Bhauma rulers were learned 
and cultured who extended their patronage to the institutions of learning. The monastery of 
Ratnagiri was one of the greatest centres of Buddhist learning in medieval lndia, and attracted 
 
scholars from different countries. According to the Tibettan tradition, recorded in Pag Sam Jon 
Zang, Bodhisri and Noropa practised Yoga at Ratnagiri. Taranath mentions that Acharya Pito 
who had acquired the Siddhi of invisibility was teaching Yoga at Ratnagiri and that Abadhuti, 
Bodhisri and Naro (Naropa ?) were his disciples.  
 Position of women 
Women enjoyed high position in the society during the Bhaumakara period. Although, 
they were dependant on their parents and husbands, still they commanded respect in the society. 
A striking feature of the Bhauma rule was that it provided a number of female rulers. In ancient 
India, if a king died without a male issue, the chief queen adopted a boy as the son to ascend the 
throne, or if the king died leaving a minor son, the dowager queen acted as the regent, but during 
the Bhauma rule women ruled independently in their own rights. Tribhuvana Mahadevi-I ruled 
as a full-fledged sovereign after the death of her son. Tribhuvana Mahadevi-II ruled over the 
kingdom after the death of her husband, even though her husband's brother had sons, who had 
legitimate claims over the throne. There were six female rulers in the Bhauma period. Five of 
them were dowagers and one was a king's daughter. Women of high birth and noble families 
received education. They also received educations in music and dance.   The Bhauma queens 
were great devotee, to various religious faiths and were instrumental for building temples and 
creating provisions for the worship of the God or Goddess. The literature of the time reflects that 
monogamy was the prevailing norm of the society. However, polygamy was not unknown in 
royal and higher families. The systems of Sati and Pardah were not prevalent. In general, women 
enjoyed high position in the society. 
Dress and ornaments 
The women of Bhauma period were fond of various hair styles, cosmetics, perfumes and 
ornaments. The sculptures of the period exhibit various types of organments, such as Kundala 
(ear ring), Karnaphula (ear flower), Ratnahara or Chandrahara (necklace), Mekhala (girdle), 
Koyura (armlet). Manjira (foot ornament) and Kankana (bracelet). The queens preferred 
necklaces and foot ornaments. Their ornaments were made of gold and silver and studded with 
pearls and diamonds. 
Religious Life during the Bhaumakaras 
In the pre-Bhauma period both Hinayana and Mahayana schools of Buddhism were 
prevalent in Odisha. Hinayana monks of Odisha had the audacity to assert the superiority of their 
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4.2.4. Conclusion  
4.2.5. Summary  
4.2.6. Exercise 
4.2.7. Further Readings 
4.2.0. Objectives 
In this lesson, students explore the society and economy during the Bhaumakara, the Somavamsis and the 
Ganga period. After completing this chapter, you will be able to: 
 
 
 
 
 
Introduction  
Change and continuity has been the way of social life in ancient and medieval Odisha 
along with the rise and fall of empires in Odisha. The glorious rule of the Bhauma-Karas, the 
Somavamsis, and the Gangas, contributed a lot to preserve the social and economic structure of 
this land. With the gradual march of time, besides the four traditional castes, many sub-castes 
emerged in the Odishan society. The agrahara villages granted to Brahmins by different kings of 
various dynasties, gave vent to the progress of education. The villages of Odisha became the 
centres around which evolved the social life of its people. Their dress, profession, hobby, 
learning etc. form the main theme of the social and economic life in Odisha 
Society and economy during the Bhaumakara 
The inscriptions of the Bhaumakaras gives us the knowledge regarding the society and 
economy during the Bhaumakara period. 
 Society during the Bhaumakara 
Society underwent changes during ancient and medieval Odisha. Although the Bhauma 
rulers were Buddhists, they accepted the Brahmanical socio-religious order. They tried to enforce 
the Varnashrama, i.e., division of society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and 
Shudra). The Neulpur charter of Subhakaradeva I states that Kshemankardeva put Varnas in their 
proper places. The Terundia charter of Subhakaradeva II states that he established the 
Varnashrama system in accordance with the scriptures. As the Bhauma rulers accepted the 
Varnashrama urder, they attached great importance to the Brahmanas, the highest Varna. They 
 
encouraged immigration of Brahmans from Madhyadesa (north India) and Bengal by the offer of 
land grants.  
 
The Social Structure : Caste system 
Let us know the social structure of caste system during the Bhaumakara period. One of 
the notable feature of ancient Indian society was the caste system. The Odishan society was not 
an exception to it. It consisted of numerous castes and sub-castes and the interaction among them 
brought social harmony bringing peace and tranquility in the Odishan society. The caste structure 
of the society of the Bhaumakara period is given bellow: 
 The Brahmins 
In the Varna system, the Brahmins enjoyed the highest position in the society of  and 
belonged to the first order. They commanded respect from the people in the society by their 
learning, prudence, pious character and other virtuous qualities. It is known from many 
inscriptions  of the Bhauma-Karas that Brahmins belonging to several gotras like Bharadwaja, 
Kausika, Visvamitra, Sandilya, Kashyapa, Atreya, etc. settled in Odisha. They settled in the 
Shasanas (agrahara villages) as is known from numerous inscriptions belonging to the Ganga 
and Suryavamsi Gajapati period. They received land grants from the kings and other landed 
aristocrats to worship gods and goddesses in different temples. Those lands were tax free lands. 
Further, they were also indispensable for many important ceremonies like the Abhiseka 
(coronation ceremony) of the king, marriage, upanayana (sacred thread ceremony) etc. By their 
noble works as priests, they commanded respect of the society and were placed in the highest 
position in the caste structure. Besides discharging their duties as priests, the Brahmins also got 
lucrative posts in the courts of the kings and Zamindars.   
 The Kshatriyas 
The Kshatriyas occupied their position in the society next to the Brahmins. They were 
warrior class and shouldered the responsibility to protect the country from internal rebellion and 
external aggression. Besides fighting they administered the country. As the inscriptions and 
literary sources of this land refer, they were benevolent rulers not despots or autocrats. They had 
great veneration towards the Brahmins from whom they sought advice to carry on 
administration. They were great builders. By receiving their patronage, a good number of 
temples were built up in Odisha. They were famous for their charity. The digging of tanks, 
 
establishment of Shasanas, educational institutions etc. were also their look out. They also took 
interest in the promotion of learning inside the society. Besides the kings and members of the 
royal family, the army chiefs, soldiers and other officials belonged to the Kshatriya caste.  The 
Kshatriyas looked for the welfare of the subjects of the society 
The Vaisyas 
The Vaisyas belonged to trading class who resorted to cultivation, cowherdship, trade and 
commerce. Generally, prosperity of the land depended largely upon the people of this 
community. They organised hatas (local markets) and controlled both inland and maritime trade. 
From the time of Asoka, it is evident that trade routes on land passed to distant South via Kalinga 
and it monopolised the trade and commerce and her economic prosperity had become an eyesore 
to Kalinga. This was possible due to the trading class (Vaisyas) in the ancient and medieval 
Odisha. Further, the Vaisyas of Odisha carried on oversea trade with the countries like Ceylon, 
Siam, Burma, Suvarnadvipa etc. and brought wealth to this land. They also helped in spreading 
the Odishan culture in South-East Asia. The Kshatriyas also paid attention for the growth of the 
Vaisyas. The kings granted special villages for them known as the' Vaisya agrahara.   
The Sudras 
In the traditional class structure, the Sudras occupied the lowest position. The Sudras 
were drawn from the community that consisted of artisans, craftsmen, petty agriculturists, 
servants etc.   Even, they were attached to the temples to serve the gods and goddesses.  Besides 
the above mentioned professions, some Sudras were untouchables. They were untouchables and 
remained outside the society. However, they served the society in various capacities. Among 
them were the washerman (rajaka), fisherman , (kaivartta), shoe-maker (charmakara), basket-
maker (doma) etc.   Besides Sudras, other sub-castes in the society were saundikas (brewers), 
tantuvayas (weavers), kumbhakaras (potters), malakaras (gardeners), napita (barber), 
tambarakara (coppersmith), tathakara (metal worker), kamara (blacksmith) etc. who rendered 
their habitual service to the society. 
Promotion of Language and learning 
Sanskrit language was used in the inscriptions and literature of the Bhaumakara period. 
The Buddhist manuscript, Gandavyuha was written in Sanskrit. The Bhauma rulers were learned 
and cultured who extended their patronage to the institutions of learning. The monastery of 
Ratnagiri was one of the greatest centres of Buddhist learning in medieval lndia, and attracted 
 
scholars from different countries. According to the Tibettan tradition, recorded in Pag Sam Jon 
Zang, Bodhisri and Noropa practised Yoga at Ratnagiri. Taranath mentions that Acharya Pito 
who had acquired the Siddhi of invisibility was teaching Yoga at Ratnagiri and that Abadhuti, 
Bodhisri and Naro (Naropa ?) were his disciples.  
 Position of women 
Women enjoyed high position in the society during the Bhaumakara period. Although, 
they were dependant on their parents and husbands, still they commanded respect in the society. 
A striking feature of the Bhauma rule was that it provided a number of female rulers. In ancient 
India, if a king died without a male issue, the chief queen adopted a boy as the son to ascend the 
throne, or if the king died leaving a minor son, the dowager queen acted as the regent, but during 
the Bhauma rule women ruled independently in their own rights. Tribhuvana Mahadevi-I ruled 
as a full-fledged sovereign after the death of her son. Tribhuvana Mahadevi-II ruled over the 
kingdom after the death of her husband, even though her husband's brother had sons, who had 
legitimate claims over the throne. There were six female rulers in the Bhauma period. Five of 
them were dowagers and one was a king's daughter. Women of high birth and noble families 
received education. They also received educations in music and dance.   The Bhauma queens 
were great devotee, to various religious faiths and were instrumental for building temples and 
creating provisions for the worship of the God or Goddess. The literature of the time reflects that 
monogamy was the prevailing norm of the society. However, polygamy was not unknown in 
royal and higher families. The systems of Sati and Pardah were not prevalent. In general, women 
enjoyed high position in the society. 
Dress and ornaments 
The women of Bhauma period were fond of various hair styles, cosmetics, perfumes and 
ornaments. The sculptures of the period exhibit various types of organments, such as Kundala 
(ear ring), Karnaphula (ear flower), Ratnahara or Chandrahara (necklace), Mekhala (girdle), 
Koyura (armlet). Manjira (foot ornament) and Kankana (bracelet). The queens preferred 
necklaces and foot ornaments. Their ornaments were made of gold and silver and studded with 
pearls and diamonds. 
Religious Life during the Bhaumakaras 
In the pre-Bhauma period both Hinayana and Mahayana schools of Buddhism were 
prevalent in Odisha. Hinayana monks of Odisha had the audacity to assert the superiority of their 
 
doctrine before the king Harsha who was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism. The early phase 
of Bhauma rule saw the phenomenal development of Mahayana and Vajrayana or Tantrik 
Bupdhism in Odisha. The three early Bhaumakara rulers - Kshemankaradeva, Sivakaradeva I and 
Subhakaradeva I respectively bore the following Buddhist epithets - Paramopasaka (devout 
worshipper of Buddha), Parama-tathagata (devout worshipper of Tathagata or Buddha) and 
Paramasaugata (devout worshipper of Saugata or Buddha). At the behest of Sivakaradeva I, a 
Buddhist monk, named Prajna, went from Odisha to China to translate the Buddhist manuscript 
named Gandavyuha. A number of Viharas or Buddhist monasteries which had come into 
existence in the pre-Bhauma period continued to flourish in the Bhauma period. Puspagiri, 
Ratnagiri, Lalitagiri, Udayagiri, Khadipada, Kupari, Chaurasi and Jayarampur were the great 
Buddhist centres of the Bhauma period. A number of the Mahayana and Tantrik Buddhist images 
of this period have been found in most of the places, mentioned above. The Bhauma rulers 
followed a policy of magnanimity and toleration towards all religious sects. It appears that the 
later Bhauma kings inclined towards the non-Buddhist sects like Saivism, Vaishnavism, 
Tantricism and Shakti cult. Madhava Devi, the wife of Subhakaradeva I built a Siva temple, 
Subhakaradeva III donated a village for the maintenance of the Siva temple of Pulindesvar. 
Subhakaradeva IV, Sivakaradeva III and Dandi Mahadevi were great devotees of Siva. The Siva 
temples of Sisiresvara, Markandesvara and Talesvara in Bhubaneswar belong to the Bhauma era. 
Tribhuvana Mahadevi I, Subhakaradeva IV, Prithvi Mahadevi, and Santikaradeva II appear to be 
devotees of Vishnu. The Nandodbhavas, who were feudatory to the Bhaumas patronized 
Vaishnavism. The Bhauma period also saw the growth of the Sakti cult in Odisha. The Vaital 
and Mohini temples of Bhubaneswar, enshrining Chamunda, were built during this period. The 
various temples and images of the Bhauma period testify to the architectural and sculptural 
excellence as well as religious synthesis and eclecticism.  
 Economy during the Bhaumakaras 
The Bhauma rulers collected moderate tax from their subjects. They helped the growth of 
feudalism by giving land grants to their officers on hereditary basis instead of paying salaries. 
Land grants were also given to the religious institutions like monasteries and temples and 
Brahmins. In the donated villages the peasants paid tax to the donees instead of the king. Next to 
agriculture, the most important industry of the Bhauma period was the manufacture of cloth. 
There were other industries such as stone work, metal work, carpentry, poetry, ivory work,