Textbook: Urban Challenges and Sustainability | AP Human Geography - Grade 9 PDF Download

 Page 1


416 CHAPTER 17: URBAN CHALLENGES AND SUSTAINABILITY
Urban Challenges and 
Sustainability
Topics 6.8–6.11
Topic 6.8 Urban Sustainability
Learning Objectives: Identify the different urban design initiatives and practices. 
(IMP-6.C)
Explain the effects of different urban design initiatives and practices. (IMP-6.D)
Topic 6.9 Urban Data
Learning Objective: Explain how qualitative and quantitative data are used to 
show the causes and effects of geographic change within urban areas.  
(IMP-6.E)
Topic 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
Learning Objective: Explain causes and effects of geographic change within 
urban areas. (SPS-6.A)
Topic 6.11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Learning Objective: Describe the effectiveness of different attempts to address 
urban sustainability challenges. (SPS-6.B)
Whenever. . . societies. . . prospered rather than stagnated and 
decayed, creative and workable cities have been at the core of the 
phenomenon. Decaying cities, declining economies, and mounting 
social troubles travel together. The combination is not coincidental.
—Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 1961
Source: Getty Images
The image shows the Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya. In the background are numerous gated 
residential communities.  (See Topic 6.10 for more on housing in periphery countries.)
CHAPTER 17
Page 2


416 CHAPTER 17: URBAN CHALLENGES AND SUSTAINABILITY
Urban Challenges and 
Sustainability
Topics 6.8–6.11
Topic 6.8 Urban Sustainability
Learning Objectives: Identify the different urban design initiatives and practices. 
(IMP-6.C)
Explain the effects of different urban design initiatives and practices. (IMP-6.D)
Topic 6.9 Urban Data
Learning Objective: Explain how qualitative and quantitative data are used to 
show the causes and effects of geographic change within urban areas.  
(IMP-6.E)
Topic 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
Learning Objective: Explain causes and effects of geographic change within 
urban areas. (SPS-6.A)
Topic 6.11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Learning Objective: Describe the effectiveness of different attempts to address 
urban sustainability challenges. (SPS-6.B)
Whenever. . . societies. . . prospered rather than stagnated and 
decayed, creative and workable cities have been at the core of the 
phenomenon. Decaying cities, declining economies, and mounting 
social troubles travel together. The combination is not coincidental.
—Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 1961
Source: Getty Images
The image shows the Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya. In the background are numerous gated 
residential communities.  (See Topic 6.10 for more on housing in periphery countries.)
CHAPTER 17
6.8: URBAN SUSTAINABILITY 417
6.8
Urban Sustainability
Essential Question: What are urban design initiatives and practices and 
what are the effects of those initiatives and practices?
Using the earth’s resources while not causing permanent damage to the 
environment is referred to as sustainability. Maintaining the sustainability and 
long-term viability of cities has become an increasingly important discussion 
for city planners, developers, and citizens.
Sustainability and the Future
Modern cities face numerous challenges from urban sprawl to access to services 
to environmental injustice. (See Topics 6.10 and 6.11.) New development 
concepts are shaping the debate about sustainability and city landscapes in 
both the United States and around the world. 
Smart-Growth Policies and Greenbelts
Urban planners and policymakers have developed smart-growth policies to 
combat urban sprawl and create a new vision for cities that are more sustainable 
and equitable. Smart growth focuses on city planning and transportation 
systems of an urban region. 
One major goal of smart-growth policies is to slow sprawl by creating 
concentrated growth in compact centers. These policies suggest spatial 
arrangements that focus on encouraging a mix of building types and uses with 
a variety of housing and transportation options available within communities. 
Smart growth also includes several other goals:
• to create attractive residential neighborhoods that are walkable, meaning 
they provide amenities that people can walk to easily
• to develop a strong sense of place among residents
• to increase livability by making the community easy and safe to navigate
• to involve residents and stakeholders in decisions that impact the 
community
In London and other European cities, smart growth policies that preserve 
farmland and other open, undeveloped spaces near the city have existed for 
over one hundred years. These greenbelts, areas of undeveloped land around 
an urban area, have been created to limit a city’s growth and preserve farmland. 
At the same time, they provide an area for people to enjoy recreation and the 
environment.
Page 3


416 CHAPTER 17: URBAN CHALLENGES AND SUSTAINABILITY
Urban Challenges and 
Sustainability
Topics 6.8–6.11
Topic 6.8 Urban Sustainability
Learning Objectives: Identify the different urban design initiatives and practices. 
(IMP-6.C)
Explain the effects of different urban design initiatives and practices. (IMP-6.D)
Topic 6.9 Urban Data
Learning Objective: Explain how qualitative and quantitative data are used to 
show the causes and effects of geographic change within urban areas.  
(IMP-6.E)
Topic 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
Learning Objective: Explain causes and effects of geographic change within 
urban areas. (SPS-6.A)
Topic 6.11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Learning Objective: Describe the effectiveness of different attempts to address 
urban sustainability challenges. (SPS-6.B)
Whenever. . . societies. . . prospered rather than stagnated and 
decayed, creative and workable cities have been at the core of the 
phenomenon. Decaying cities, declining economies, and mounting 
social troubles travel together. The combination is not coincidental.
—Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 1961
Source: Getty Images
The image shows the Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya. In the background are numerous gated 
residential communities.  (See Topic 6.10 for more on housing in periphery countries.)
CHAPTER 17
6.8: URBAN SUSTAINABILITY 417
6.8
Urban Sustainability
Essential Question: What are urban design initiatives and practices and 
what are the effects of those initiatives and practices?
Using the earth’s resources while not causing permanent damage to the 
environment is referred to as sustainability. Maintaining the sustainability and 
long-term viability of cities has become an increasingly important discussion 
for city planners, developers, and citizens.
Sustainability and the Future
Modern cities face numerous challenges from urban sprawl to access to services 
to environmental injustice. (See Topics 6.10 and 6.11.) New development 
concepts are shaping the debate about sustainability and city landscapes in 
both the United States and around the world. 
Smart-Growth Policies and Greenbelts
Urban planners and policymakers have developed smart-growth policies to 
combat urban sprawl and create a new vision for cities that are more sustainable 
and equitable. Smart growth focuses on city planning and transportation 
systems of an urban region. 
One major goal of smart-growth policies is to slow sprawl by creating 
concentrated growth in compact centers. These policies suggest spatial 
arrangements that focus on encouraging a mix of building types and uses with 
a variety of housing and transportation options available within communities. 
Smart growth also includes several other goals:
• to create attractive residential neighborhoods that are walkable, meaning 
they provide amenities that people can walk to easily
• to develop a strong sense of place among residents
• to increase livability by making the community easy and safe to navigate
• to involve residents and stakeholders in decisions that impact the 
community
In London and other European cities, smart growth policies that preserve 
farmland and other open, undeveloped spaces near the city have existed for 
over one hundred years. These greenbelts, areas of undeveloped land around 
an urban area, have been created to limit a city’s growth and preserve farmland. 
At the same time, they provide an area for people to enjoy recreation and the 
environment.
418 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
This photo of Feltham, England, located in West London, shows the edge of the greenbelt that surrounds 
much of the city of London. What purposes does the greenbelt serve? 
Many communities in the United States have adopted greenbelt policies 
to limit growth similar to those in Europe. Under the principles of smart 
growth, cities are allowed to annex (legally add) land only in areas specifically 
designated by laws. New Jersey, Rhode Island, Washington, Tennessee, and 
Oregon have all enacted smart-growth policies.
Some cities desire to slow the population growth and development that 
could consume and alter their communities. Slow-growth cities adopt policies 
to slow the outward spread of urban areas and place limits on building permits 
in order to encourage a denser, more compact city. Protecting local sense of 
place and natural landscapes has also motivated governments to embrace slow-
growth policies. The cities of Boulder, Colorado, and Portland, Oregon, are 
considered slow-growth cities that have aggressively applied these policies. 
New Urbanism
A group of developers in the 1990s created a set of strategies called new urban 
design to put smart growth into action within communities. Some strategies 
of new urbanism include creating human-scale neighborhoods (designed for 
optimum human use), reclaiming neglected spaces, giving access to multiple 
modes of transportation, increasing affordable housing, and creating mixed-
use neighborhoods. Unlike the clear separation between residential and 
commercial uses created by zoning in most cities, these neighborhoods would 
have a mix of homes and businesses. A mixed-use neighborhood is vibrant, livable, 
and walkable. Homes would include a variety of sizes and price ranges to create 
a socially diverse community. Shared open spaces and community gathering 
spaces are also common. 
New urbanism has succeeded in many communities that have tried the 
strategies in spite of two large obstacles:
• The existing system of zoning (see Topic 6.6) created segregated areas by 
land use, and thus contributed to sprawl.
• People accustomed to traditional land-use patterns in cities were not easily 
convinced that the new urbanism was an improvement.
Page 4


416 CHAPTER 17: URBAN CHALLENGES AND SUSTAINABILITY
Urban Challenges and 
Sustainability
Topics 6.8–6.11
Topic 6.8 Urban Sustainability
Learning Objectives: Identify the different urban design initiatives and practices. 
(IMP-6.C)
Explain the effects of different urban design initiatives and practices. (IMP-6.D)
Topic 6.9 Urban Data
Learning Objective: Explain how qualitative and quantitative data are used to 
show the causes and effects of geographic change within urban areas.  
(IMP-6.E)
Topic 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
Learning Objective: Explain causes and effects of geographic change within 
urban areas. (SPS-6.A)
Topic 6.11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Learning Objective: Describe the effectiveness of different attempts to address 
urban sustainability challenges. (SPS-6.B)
Whenever. . . societies. . . prospered rather than stagnated and 
decayed, creative and workable cities have been at the core of the 
phenomenon. Decaying cities, declining economies, and mounting 
social troubles travel together. The combination is not coincidental.
—Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 1961
Source: Getty Images
The image shows the Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya. In the background are numerous gated 
residential communities.  (See Topic 6.10 for more on housing in periphery countries.)
CHAPTER 17
6.8: URBAN SUSTAINABILITY 417
6.8
Urban Sustainability
Essential Question: What are urban design initiatives and practices and 
what are the effects of those initiatives and practices?
Using the earth’s resources while not causing permanent damage to the 
environment is referred to as sustainability. Maintaining the sustainability and 
long-term viability of cities has become an increasingly important discussion 
for city planners, developers, and citizens.
Sustainability and the Future
Modern cities face numerous challenges from urban sprawl to access to services 
to environmental injustice. (See Topics 6.10 and 6.11.) New development 
concepts are shaping the debate about sustainability and city landscapes in 
both the United States and around the world. 
Smart-Growth Policies and Greenbelts
Urban planners and policymakers have developed smart-growth policies to 
combat urban sprawl and create a new vision for cities that are more sustainable 
and equitable. Smart growth focuses on city planning and transportation 
systems of an urban region. 
One major goal of smart-growth policies is to slow sprawl by creating 
concentrated growth in compact centers. These policies suggest spatial 
arrangements that focus on encouraging a mix of building types and uses with 
a variety of housing and transportation options available within communities. 
Smart growth also includes several other goals:
• to create attractive residential neighborhoods that are walkable, meaning 
they provide amenities that people can walk to easily
• to develop a strong sense of place among residents
• to increase livability by making the community easy and safe to navigate
• to involve residents and stakeholders in decisions that impact the 
community
In London and other European cities, smart growth policies that preserve 
farmland and other open, undeveloped spaces near the city have existed for 
over one hundred years. These greenbelts, areas of undeveloped land around 
an urban area, have been created to limit a city’s growth and preserve farmland. 
At the same time, they provide an area for people to enjoy recreation and the 
environment.
418 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
This photo of Feltham, England, located in West London, shows the edge of the greenbelt that surrounds 
much of the city of London. What purposes does the greenbelt serve? 
Many communities in the United States have adopted greenbelt policies 
to limit growth similar to those in Europe. Under the principles of smart 
growth, cities are allowed to annex (legally add) land only in areas specifically 
designated by laws. New Jersey, Rhode Island, Washington, Tennessee, and 
Oregon have all enacted smart-growth policies.
Some cities desire to slow the population growth and development that 
could consume and alter their communities. Slow-growth cities adopt policies 
to slow the outward spread of urban areas and place limits on building permits 
in order to encourage a denser, more compact city. Protecting local sense of 
place and natural landscapes has also motivated governments to embrace slow-
growth policies. The cities of Boulder, Colorado, and Portland, Oregon, are 
considered slow-growth cities that have aggressively applied these policies. 
New Urbanism
A group of developers in the 1990s created a set of strategies called new urban 
design to put smart growth into action within communities. Some strategies 
of new urbanism include creating human-scale neighborhoods (designed for 
optimum human use), reclaiming neglected spaces, giving access to multiple 
modes of transportation, increasing affordable housing, and creating mixed-
use neighborhoods. Unlike the clear separation between residential and 
commercial uses created by zoning in most cities, these neighborhoods would 
have a mix of homes and businesses. A mixed-use neighborhood is vibrant, livable, 
and walkable. Homes would include a variety of sizes and price ranges to create 
a socially diverse community. Shared open spaces and community gathering 
spaces are also common. 
New urbanism has succeeded in many communities that have tried the 
strategies in spite of two large obstacles:
• The existing system of zoning (see Topic 6.6) created segregated areas by 
land use, and thus contributed to sprawl.
• People accustomed to traditional land-use patterns in cities were not easily 
convinced that the new urbanism was an improvement.
419 6.8: URBAN SUSTAINABILITY
Stakeholder involvement is an important aspect of new urbanism. For 
example, in Denver, a new urban neighborhood that was built on the site of a 
closed major airport was recently renamed. The airport was originally named 
after a former politician who had supported racist and discriminatory policies, 
but the neighborhood decided to change its name Central Park in 2021. New 
urban design can occur in the suburbs as a new development or within the city 
practicing the concept of urban infill. 
Urban Infill
The opposite of leapfrog development (see T opic 6.2) and sprawl is urban infill, 
the process of building up underused lands within a city. Most cities have areas 
of vacant or undeveloped land of varying sizes. These may be remnants of shut 
down industrial areas, airports, military bases, hospitals, or malls. The space 
could be unused because of difficult terrain or poor planning. Because infill 
uses vacant or discarded land rather than expanding the edge of a city, it is 
considered smart growth. 
The communities of Central Park, Colorado, and Civita, California, are 
examples of both urban infill and new urbanism. The Civita master-planned 
community was built on the site of a former quarry located in the Mission 
Valley section of San Diego. Today, Civita includes a mix of housing types, 
parks, community centers, and commercial zones, and is well connected by 
public transit. The community also promotes sustainability by using renewable 
building materials, solar panels, electric vehicle charging stations, and energy 
management tools for residents and businesses. 
Source: David Palmer 
Denver’s Central Park Neighborhood is an example of both new urban design and infill. The former 
airport control tower is in the background and the neighbors share a common open space. Notice the 
single-family homes and higher density townhomes in the background. Shops are two blocks away. 
Transit-Oriented Development
New urban and other smart growth developers have embraced the concept of 
transit-oriented development (TOD), which locates mixed-use residential 
and business communities near mass transit stops, resulting in a series of more 
Page 5


416 CHAPTER 17: URBAN CHALLENGES AND SUSTAINABILITY
Urban Challenges and 
Sustainability
Topics 6.8–6.11
Topic 6.8 Urban Sustainability
Learning Objectives: Identify the different urban design initiatives and practices. 
(IMP-6.C)
Explain the effects of different urban design initiatives and practices. (IMP-6.D)
Topic 6.9 Urban Data
Learning Objective: Explain how qualitative and quantitative data are used to 
show the causes and effects of geographic change within urban areas.  
(IMP-6.E)
Topic 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
Learning Objective: Explain causes and effects of geographic change within 
urban areas. (SPS-6.A)
Topic 6.11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Learning Objective: Describe the effectiveness of different attempts to address 
urban sustainability challenges. (SPS-6.B)
Whenever. . . societies. . . prospered rather than stagnated and 
decayed, creative and workable cities have been at the core of the 
phenomenon. Decaying cities, declining economies, and mounting 
social troubles travel together. The combination is not coincidental.
—Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 1961
Source: Getty Images
The image shows the Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya. In the background are numerous gated 
residential communities.  (See Topic 6.10 for more on housing in periphery countries.)
CHAPTER 17
6.8: URBAN SUSTAINABILITY 417
6.8
Urban Sustainability
Essential Question: What are urban design initiatives and practices and 
what are the effects of those initiatives and practices?
Using the earth’s resources while not causing permanent damage to the 
environment is referred to as sustainability. Maintaining the sustainability and 
long-term viability of cities has become an increasingly important discussion 
for city planners, developers, and citizens.
Sustainability and the Future
Modern cities face numerous challenges from urban sprawl to access to services 
to environmental injustice. (See Topics 6.10 and 6.11.) New development 
concepts are shaping the debate about sustainability and city landscapes in 
both the United States and around the world. 
Smart-Growth Policies and Greenbelts
Urban planners and policymakers have developed smart-growth policies to 
combat urban sprawl and create a new vision for cities that are more sustainable 
and equitable. Smart growth focuses on city planning and transportation 
systems of an urban region. 
One major goal of smart-growth policies is to slow sprawl by creating 
concentrated growth in compact centers. These policies suggest spatial 
arrangements that focus on encouraging a mix of building types and uses with 
a variety of housing and transportation options available within communities. 
Smart growth also includes several other goals:
• to create attractive residential neighborhoods that are walkable, meaning 
they provide amenities that people can walk to easily
• to develop a strong sense of place among residents
• to increase livability by making the community easy and safe to navigate
• to involve residents and stakeholders in decisions that impact the 
community
In London and other European cities, smart growth policies that preserve 
farmland and other open, undeveloped spaces near the city have existed for 
over one hundred years. These greenbelts, areas of undeveloped land around 
an urban area, have been created to limit a city’s growth and preserve farmland. 
At the same time, they provide an area for people to enjoy recreation and the 
environment.
418 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
This photo of Feltham, England, located in West London, shows the edge of the greenbelt that surrounds 
much of the city of London. What purposes does the greenbelt serve? 
Many communities in the United States have adopted greenbelt policies 
to limit growth similar to those in Europe. Under the principles of smart 
growth, cities are allowed to annex (legally add) land only in areas specifically 
designated by laws. New Jersey, Rhode Island, Washington, Tennessee, and 
Oregon have all enacted smart-growth policies.
Some cities desire to slow the population growth and development that 
could consume and alter their communities. Slow-growth cities adopt policies 
to slow the outward spread of urban areas and place limits on building permits 
in order to encourage a denser, more compact city. Protecting local sense of 
place and natural landscapes has also motivated governments to embrace slow-
growth policies. The cities of Boulder, Colorado, and Portland, Oregon, are 
considered slow-growth cities that have aggressively applied these policies. 
New Urbanism
A group of developers in the 1990s created a set of strategies called new urban 
design to put smart growth into action within communities. Some strategies 
of new urbanism include creating human-scale neighborhoods (designed for 
optimum human use), reclaiming neglected spaces, giving access to multiple 
modes of transportation, increasing affordable housing, and creating mixed-
use neighborhoods. Unlike the clear separation between residential and 
commercial uses created by zoning in most cities, these neighborhoods would 
have a mix of homes and businesses. A mixed-use neighborhood is vibrant, livable, 
and walkable. Homes would include a variety of sizes and price ranges to create 
a socially diverse community. Shared open spaces and community gathering 
spaces are also common. 
New urbanism has succeeded in many communities that have tried the 
strategies in spite of two large obstacles:
• The existing system of zoning (see Topic 6.6) created segregated areas by 
land use, and thus contributed to sprawl.
• People accustomed to traditional land-use patterns in cities were not easily 
convinced that the new urbanism was an improvement.
419 6.8: URBAN SUSTAINABILITY
Stakeholder involvement is an important aspect of new urbanism. For 
example, in Denver, a new urban neighborhood that was built on the site of a 
closed major airport was recently renamed. The airport was originally named 
after a former politician who had supported racist and discriminatory policies, 
but the neighborhood decided to change its name Central Park in 2021. New 
urban design can occur in the suburbs as a new development or within the city 
practicing the concept of urban infill. 
Urban Infill
The opposite of leapfrog development (see T opic 6.2) and sprawl is urban infill, 
the process of building up underused lands within a city. Most cities have areas 
of vacant or undeveloped land of varying sizes. These may be remnants of shut 
down industrial areas, airports, military bases, hospitals, or malls. The space 
could be unused because of difficult terrain or poor planning. Because infill 
uses vacant or discarded land rather than expanding the edge of a city, it is 
considered smart growth. 
The communities of Central Park, Colorado, and Civita, California, are 
examples of both urban infill and new urbanism. The Civita master-planned 
community was built on the site of a former quarry located in the Mission 
Valley section of San Diego. Today, Civita includes a mix of housing types, 
parks, community centers, and commercial zones, and is well connected by 
public transit. The community also promotes sustainability by using renewable 
building materials, solar panels, electric vehicle charging stations, and energy 
management tools for residents and businesses. 
Source: David Palmer 
Denver’s Central Park Neighborhood is an example of both new urban design and infill. The former 
airport control tower is in the background and the neighbors share a common open space. Notice the 
single-family homes and higher density townhomes in the background. Shops are two blocks away. 
Transit-Oriented Development
New urban and other smart growth developers have embraced the concept of 
transit-oriented development (TOD), which locates mixed-use residential 
and business communities near mass transit stops, resulting in a series of more 
420 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
compact communities which decreases the need for automobiles. Increasingly 
TOD includes multiple forms of transportation including train, bus, and light rail. 
Getting public transit riders the last mile from a transit stop to home or 
work is challenging for city planners. Micro-transport options such as taxis, 
electric street scooters, bicycles, and shared rider apps (such as Uber or Lyft) 
help solve the last mile problem. These types of transportation exist in most 
major world cities and have varying levels of success.The cities of Singapore, 
London, Paris, and New York City are rated as some of the most successful 
cities in transit-oriented development. 
Source: David Palmer 
Transit-oriented development (TOD) often includes multiple forms of transportation. Union Station in 
Denver includes train, bus, light rail, and many micro-transport options. 
Livability
A concept that has recently gained traction with sustainable urban development 
is livability . Livability refers to a set of principles that supports sustainable urban 
designs. Livable communities have affordable and equitable housing, access to 
employment and community services, multiple and accessible transportation 
modes, and social and civic engagement. 
Other Changes
Cities adapt to their growing and evolving populations. For example, the creation 
of pedestrian zones where street fairs, festivals, and public events are held help 
make inner cities both safer and more desirable destinations. The addition of 
bike lanes and an increase in bike usage reduces traffic congestion and parking 
needs while encouraging a healthful lifestyle. In addition, increasing the number 
of running paths, community gardens, and dog parks further promotes the health 
and well-being of residents. Many cities are actively developing relationships with 
local farmers, which benefits both urban and rural citizens through the spread of 
farmers’ markets and the promotion of a more sustainable local economy .