NCERT Textbook: Stem Cell Culture and Organ Culture | Biotechnology for Class 12 - NEET PDF Download

 Page 1


Stem cell study forms an exciting and attractive area of 
contemporary biomedical research that has enormous 
potential for both basic and translational research. Stem 
cells can be used for alleviating suffering from many 
diseases that currently have no effective therapy. The ??eld 
has progressed to the clinic and it is very important that 
the basics of stem cells be reinforced by excellent science 
and rigorous standards of clinical research. Besides this, 
organ culture is another modern approach that involves 
developing a part or the whole organ using tissue culture 
techniques. In this chapter, we are going to study in detail 
about stem cell culture and organ culture along with their 
applications.
9.1 Stem Cell Culture Life forms are characterised by the ability to reproduce 
itself. One of the key features of sexual reproduction is 
the formation of zygote through the process of fertilisation 
resulting from the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) and 
female gamete (oocyte). Formation of embryo from the zygote 
involves cell division resulting into the formation of two 
9.1 Stem Cell Culture
9.2 Organ Culture
Stem Cell Culture and
Organ Culture
9
Chapter 
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   209 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Page 2


Stem cell study forms an exciting and attractive area of 
contemporary biomedical research that has enormous 
potential for both basic and translational research. Stem 
cells can be used for alleviating suffering from many 
diseases that currently have no effective therapy. The ??eld 
has progressed to the clinic and it is very important that 
the basics of stem cells be reinforced by excellent science 
and rigorous standards of clinical research. Besides this, 
organ culture is another modern approach that involves 
developing a part or the whole organ using tissue culture 
techniques. In this chapter, we are going to study in detail 
about stem cell culture and organ culture along with their 
applications.
9.1 Stem Cell Culture Life forms are characterised by the ability to reproduce 
itself. One of the key features of sexual reproduction is 
the formation of zygote through the process of fertilisation 
resulting from the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) and 
female gamete (oocyte). Formation of embryo from the zygote 
involves cell division resulting into the formation of two 
9.1 Stem Cell Culture
9.2 Organ Culture
Stem Cell Culture and
Organ Culture
9
Chapter 
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   209 23-01-2025   11:25:45
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Biotechnology XII 210
celled, four celled, eight celled organism so on. Ultimately, 
these daughter cells differentiate into a variety of cells, 
such as muscle cells, skin cells, liver cells, cardiovascular 
cells, epithelial cells, etc. However, during the process of 
differentiation, cells vary in their potential to make ??nal 
cells such that some cells become ‘mature’ while some 
remain ‘immature’. Such ‘immature’ cells which have the 
potential to differentiate into a wide range of specialised 
cell type, are called stem cells. These stem cells have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types.
Historical perspective
Stem cells have been known to procreate more interest, 
inspection and debate than any other area of scienti??c 
study. The ??rst stem cells were isolated from blood cells. 
At present, scientists all around the world are working 
on various types of stem cells to revolutionise the area of 
regenerative medicine by using the potential of stem cells 
to regenerate the tissue or organ. The story of this amazing 
journey has been detailed in the form of a ??ow chart to 
reveal its most salient moments through the voice of some 
of the pioneers in this exciting ??eld (Box 1).
Stem cells are non-specialised cells with an inherent 
property of self-renewal and potency, i.e., they have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types. Stem 
cells are present in most of the multi-cellular organisms 
and are able to endure adverse conditions for long-time 
periods. In humans, stem cells are found in umbilical cord, 
placenta, inner cell mass of the early embryo, few tissues 
of foetus and in some adult organs. 
Due to the virtue of differentiation, stem cells can be 
useful for treating and understanding the diseases and 
can be used to:
• develop new cells in vitro to replace the damaged 
tissues or organs. 
• study the cause of genetic defects in cells as well as to 
study the cause of diseases and their treatments.
• test new lead molecules as drugs.
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   210 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Page 3


Stem cell study forms an exciting and attractive area of 
contemporary biomedical research that has enormous 
potential for both basic and translational research. Stem 
cells can be used for alleviating suffering from many 
diseases that currently have no effective therapy. The ??eld 
has progressed to the clinic and it is very important that 
the basics of stem cells be reinforced by excellent science 
and rigorous standards of clinical research. Besides this, 
organ culture is another modern approach that involves 
developing a part or the whole organ using tissue culture 
techniques. In this chapter, we are going to study in detail 
about stem cell culture and organ culture along with their 
applications.
9.1 Stem Cell Culture Life forms are characterised by the ability to reproduce 
itself. One of the key features of sexual reproduction is 
the formation of zygote through the process of fertilisation 
resulting from the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) and 
female gamete (oocyte). Formation of embryo from the zygote 
involves cell division resulting into the formation of two 
9.1 Stem Cell Culture
9.2 Organ Culture
Stem Cell Culture and
Organ Culture
9
Chapter 
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   209 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 210
celled, four celled, eight celled organism so on. Ultimately, 
these daughter cells differentiate into a variety of cells, 
such as muscle cells, skin cells, liver cells, cardiovascular 
cells, epithelial cells, etc. However, during the process of 
differentiation, cells vary in their potential to make ??nal 
cells such that some cells become ‘mature’ while some 
remain ‘immature’. Such ‘immature’ cells which have the 
potential to differentiate into a wide range of specialised 
cell type, are called stem cells. These stem cells have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types.
Historical perspective
Stem cells have been known to procreate more interest, 
inspection and debate than any other area of scienti??c 
study. The ??rst stem cells were isolated from blood cells. 
At present, scientists all around the world are working 
on various types of stem cells to revolutionise the area of 
regenerative medicine by using the potential of stem cells 
to regenerate the tissue or organ. The story of this amazing 
journey has been detailed in the form of a ??ow chart to 
reveal its most salient moments through the voice of some 
of the pioneers in this exciting ??eld (Box 1).
Stem cells are non-specialised cells with an inherent 
property of self-renewal and potency, i.e., they have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types. Stem 
cells are present in most of the multi-cellular organisms 
and are able to endure adverse conditions for long-time 
periods. In humans, stem cells are found in umbilical cord, 
placenta, inner cell mass of the early embryo, few tissues 
of foetus and in some adult organs. 
Due to the virtue of differentiation, stem cells can be 
useful for treating and understanding the diseases and 
can be used to:
• develop new cells in vitro to replace the damaged 
tissues or organs. 
• study the cause of genetic defects in cells as well as to 
study the cause of diseases and their treatments.
• test new lead molecules as drugs.
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   210 23-01-2025   11:25:45
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Stem cell culture and Organ Culture
211
9.1.1 Stem cell classification
Stem cells may be classi??ed depending upon the source 
and potency (Fig. 9.1).
Classification based on source
On the basis of the source, stem cells have been categorised 
into three major groups— the embryonic stem cells, the 
Box 1
Historical Timeline of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). [human Induced pluripotent stem 
cells (hiPSCs); Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)]
1998
2006
2009
2012
2014
2004
2007
2010
2013
2015
2017
Derivation of hESCs
Derivation of the
Xeno-free culture conditions for hESCs
First conditions developed to completely
eliminate the use of animal products for
hESC culture
Clinical trials with hESCs
Clinical trials with hESCs
C trial linical continued with hESCs
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize awarded to Dr. Shinya Yamanaka
and Sir John Gurdon for the discovery that
mature cells can be reprogrammed to
become pluripotent
Clinical trials with hiPSCs
First clinical with hiPSCs trial
was initiated
Germ cell potential
Human ESCs can not only differentiate
into ecto- endo-and mesoderm, but also
towards the germ cell lineage
Generation of hiPSCs
Generation of human iPSCs
Naive state hESCs
First report of naive state
hESCs
Derivation of SCNT-hESCs
First derivation of hESCs by
therapeutic cloning
CRISPR/cas9 gene editing in hESCs
CRISPR/cas9 technology applied
to hESC gene editing
Organoids from hESCs
Generation of organoids
from hESCs for modeling fetal organ
morphogenesis
H I S T O R I C A L T I M E L I N E O F E S C h s
First clinical trial with hESCswas initiated
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   211 23-01-2025   11:25:45
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Page 4


Stem cell study forms an exciting and attractive area of 
contemporary biomedical research that has enormous 
potential for both basic and translational research. Stem 
cells can be used for alleviating suffering from many 
diseases that currently have no effective therapy. The ??eld 
has progressed to the clinic and it is very important that 
the basics of stem cells be reinforced by excellent science 
and rigorous standards of clinical research. Besides this, 
organ culture is another modern approach that involves 
developing a part or the whole organ using tissue culture 
techniques. In this chapter, we are going to study in detail 
about stem cell culture and organ culture along with their 
applications.
9.1 Stem Cell Culture Life forms are characterised by the ability to reproduce 
itself. One of the key features of sexual reproduction is 
the formation of zygote through the process of fertilisation 
resulting from the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) and 
female gamete (oocyte). Formation of embryo from the zygote 
involves cell division resulting into the formation of two 
9.1 Stem Cell Culture
9.2 Organ Culture
Stem Cell Culture and
Organ Culture
9
Chapter 
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   209 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 210
celled, four celled, eight celled organism so on. Ultimately, 
these daughter cells differentiate into a variety of cells, 
such as muscle cells, skin cells, liver cells, cardiovascular 
cells, epithelial cells, etc. However, during the process of 
differentiation, cells vary in their potential to make ??nal 
cells such that some cells become ‘mature’ while some 
remain ‘immature’. Such ‘immature’ cells which have the 
potential to differentiate into a wide range of specialised 
cell type, are called stem cells. These stem cells have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types.
Historical perspective
Stem cells have been known to procreate more interest, 
inspection and debate than any other area of scienti??c 
study. The ??rst stem cells were isolated from blood cells. 
At present, scientists all around the world are working 
on various types of stem cells to revolutionise the area of 
regenerative medicine by using the potential of stem cells 
to regenerate the tissue or organ. The story of this amazing 
journey has been detailed in the form of a ??ow chart to 
reveal its most salient moments through the voice of some 
of the pioneers in this exciting ??eld (Box 1).
Stem cells are non-specialised cells with an inherent 
property of self-renewal and potency, i.e., they have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types. Stem 
cells are present in most of the multi-cellular organisms 
and are able to endure adverse conditions for long-time 
periods. In humans, stem cells are found in umbilical cord, 
placenta, inner cell mass of the early embryo, few tissues 
of foetus and in some adult organs. 
Due to the virtue of differentiation, stem cells can be 
useful for treating and understanding the diseases and 
can be used to:
• develop new cells in vitro to replace the damaged 
tissues or organs. 
• study the cause of genetic defects in cells as well as to 
study the cause of diseases and their treatments.
• test new lead molecules as drugs.
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   210 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Stem cell culture and Organ Culture
211
9.1.1 Stem cell classification
Stem cells may be classi??ed depending upon the source 
and potency (Fig. 9.1).
Classification based on source
On the basis of the source, stem cells have been categorised 
into three major groups— the embryonic stem cells, the 
Box 1
Historical Timeline of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). [human Induced pluripotent stem 
cells (hiPSCs); Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)]
1998
2006
2009
2012
2014
2004
2007
2010
2013
2015
2017
Derivation of hESCs
Derivation of the
Xeno-free culture conditions for hESCs
First conditions developed to completely
eliminate the use of animal products for
hESC culture
Clinical trials with hESCs
Clinical trials with hESCs
C trial linical continued with hESCs
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize awarded to Dr. Shinya Yamanaka
and Sir John Gurdon for the discovery that
mature cells can be reprogrammed to
become pluripotent
Clinical trials with hiPSCs
First clinical with hiPSCs trial
was initiated
Germ cell potential
Human ESCs can not only differentiate
into ecto- endo-and mesoderm, but also
towards the germ cell lineage
Generation of hiPSCs
Generation of human iPSCs
Naive state hESCs
First report of naive state
hESCs
Derivation of SCNT-hESCs
First derivation of hESCs by
therapeutic cloning
CRISPR/cas9 gene editing in hESCs
CRISPR/cas9 technology applied
to hESC gene editing
Organoids from hESCs
Generation of organoids
from hESCs for modeling fetal organ
morphogenesis
H I S T O R I C A L T I M E L I N E O F E S C h s
First clinical trial with hESCswas initiated
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   211 23-01-2025   11:25:45
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Biotechnology XII 212
fetel stem cell and adult stem cells. There is one more group 
called fetal stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are also known 
as early stem cells and are present in the inner cell mass 
of blastocyst after around ??ve days of development. Adult 
stem cells or mature stem cells are present in the umbilical 
cord, placenta after birth and in mature body tissues.  As 
the embryonic stem cells have the property to differentiate 
into any tissue of the body, they are more promising for 
clinical applications than adult stem cells. However, the 
use of embryonic stem cells in humans is limited because 
of technical safety and some ethical dilemma. On the 
Fig 9.1: Various type of stem cells
(b). Based on differentiation potency
(a). Based on source
(a) Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) (b) Fetal stem cells
Blastocyst
Inner cell
mass
Expand and
manipulated stem
cell in vitro
Retina
Cortex
Umbilical
cord
Midbrain
(c) Adult stem cell
Skin
Blood Bone
marrow
Brain subventricular
zone of lateral ventricle
hippocampus
Fetus
Zygote
4-Stage Cell
Morula
Adult
Multipotent
Totipotent
Totipotent
Pluripotent
Multipotent
and unipotent
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   212 23-01-2025   11:25:46
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Page 5


Stem cell study forms an exciting and attractive area of 
contemporary biomedical research that has enormous 
potential for both basic and translational research. Stem 
cells can be used for alleviating suffering from many 
diseases that currently have no effective therapy. The ??eld 
has progressed to the clinic and it is very important that 
the basics of stem cells be reinforced by excellent science 
and rigorous standards of clinical research. Besides this, 
organ culture is another modern approach that involves 
developing a part or the whole organ using tissue culture 
techniques. In this chapter, we are going to study in detail 
about stem cell culture and organ culture along with their 
applications.
9.1 Stem Cell Culture Life forms are characterised by the ability to reproduce 
itself. One of the key features of sexual reproduction is 
the formation of zygote through the process of fertilisation 
resulting from the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) and 
female gamete (oocyte). Formation of embryo from the zygote 
involves cell division resulting into the formation of two 
9.1 Stem Cell Culture
9.2 Organ Culture
Stem Cell Culture and
Organ Culture
9
Chapter 
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   209 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 210
celled, four celled, eight celled organism so on. Ultimately, 
these daughter cells differentiate into a variety of cells, 
such as muscle cells, skin cells, liver cells, cardiovascular 
cells, epithelial cells, etc. However, during the process of 
differentiation, cells vary in their potential to make ??nal 
cells such that some cells become ‘mature’ while some 
remain ‘immature’. Such ‘immature’ cells which have the 
potential to differentiate into a wide range of specialised 
cell type, are called stem cells. These stem cells have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types.
Historical perspective
Stem cells have been known to procreate more interest, 
inspection and debate than any other area of scienti??c 
study. The ??rst stem cells were isolated from blood cells. 
At present, scientists all around the world are working 
on various types of stem cells to revolutionise the area of 
regenerative medicine by using the potential of stem cells 
to regenerate the tissue or organ. The story of this amazing 
journey has been detailed in the form of a ??ow chart to 
reveal its most salient moments through the voice of some 
of the pioneers in this exciting ??eld (Box 1).
Stem cells are non-specialised cells with an inherent 
property of self-renewal and potency, i.e., they have the 
potential for self-renewal via mitotic cell division and then 
differentiate into a wide range of specialised cell types. Stem 
cells are present in most of the multi-cellular organisms 
and are able to endure adverse conditions for long-time 
periods. In humans, stem cells are found in umbilical cord, 
placenta, inner cell mass of the early embryo, few tissues 
of foetus and in some adult organs. 
Due to the virtue of differentiation, stem cells can be 
useful for treating and understanding the diseases and 
can be used to:
• develop new cells in vitro to replace the damaged 
tissues or organs. 
• study the cause of genetic defects in cells as well as to 
study the cause of diseases and their treatments.
• test new lead molecules as drugs.
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   210 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Stem cell culture and Organ Culture
211
9.1.1 Stem cell classification
Stem cells may be classi??ed depending upon the source 
and potency (Fig. 9.1).
Classification based on source
On the basis of the source, stem cells have been categorised 
into three major groups— the embryonic stem cells, the 
Box 1
Historical Timeline of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). [human Induced pluripotent stem 
cells (hiPSCs); Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)]
1998
2006
2009
2012
2014
2004
2007
2010
2013
2015
2017
Derivation of hESCs
Derivation of the
Xeno-free culture conditions for hESCs
First conditions developed to completely
eliminate the use of animal products for
hESC culture
Clinical trials with hESCs
Clinical trials with hESCs
C trial linical continued with hESCs
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize awarded to Dr. Shinya Yamanaka
and Sir John Gurdon for the discovery that
mature cells can be reprogrammed to
become pluripotent
Clinical trials with hiPSCs
First clinical with hiPSCs trial
was initiated
Germ cell potential
Human ESCs can not only differentiate
into ecto- endo-and mesoderm, but also
towards the germ cell lineage
Generation of hiPSCs
Generation of human iPSCs
Naive state hESCs
First report of naive state
hESCs
Derivation of SCNT-hESCs
First derivation of hESCs by
therapeutic cloning
CRISPR/cas9 gene editing in hESCs
CRISPR/cas9 technology applied
to hESC gene editing
Organoids from hESCs
Generation of organoids
from hESCs for modeling fetal organ
morphogenesis
H I S T O R I C A L T I M E L I N E O F E S C h s
First clinical trial with hESCswas initiated
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   211 23-01-2025   11:25:45
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 212
fetel stem cell and adult stem cells. There is one more group 
called fetal stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are also known 
as early stem cells and are present in the inner cell mass 
of blastocyst after around ??ve days of development. Adult 
stem cells or mature stem cells are present in the umbilical 
cord, placenta after birth and in mature body tissues.  As 
the embryonic stem cells have the property to differentiate 
into any tissue of the body, they are more promising for 
clinical applications than adult stem cells. However, the 
use of embryonic stem cells in humans is limited because 
of technical safety and some ethical dilemma. On the 
Fig 9.1: Various type of stem cells
(b). Based on differentiation potency
(a). Based on source
(a) Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) (b) Fetal stem cells
Blastocyst
Inner cell
mass
Expand and
manipulated stem
cell in vitro
Retina
Cortex
Umbilical
cord
Midbrain
(c) Adult stem cell
Skin
Blood Bone
marrow
Brain subventricular
zone of lateral ventricle
hippocampus
Fetus
Zygote
4-Stage Cell
Morula
Adult
Multipotent
Totipotent
Totipotent
Pluripotent
Multipotent
and unipotent
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   212 23-01-2025   11:25:46
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Stem cell culture and Organ Culture
213
contrary, there are no controversies regarding the safety 
and ethical issues associated with adult stem cells. Adult 
stem cells were thought to be irreversible, dedicated to 
a speci??c lineage. However, now they have been shown 
to exhibit plasticity, i.e., stem cells from one tissue can 
differentiate and produce cells of a completely different 
tissue.
(a) Embryonic stem cells
Embryonic stem cells are classi??ed as self-reproducing 
pluripotent cells and are possibly immortal. The human 
embryonic stem cells are derived from the embryo that is 
blastocyst. The distinctive features of embryonic stem cells 
are as follows:
1. These cells can be isolated from the inner cell mass 
or epiblast of  the blastocyst.
2. These cells are pluripotent in nature and have the 
ability to give rise to all the three germ layers, i.e., 
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. 
3. They have the capability of self-renewal and exhibit 
stable diploid chromosome. 
4. They retain the characteristics of embryo founder 
cells even after extensive manipulation. 
5. Depending on the conditions of the in vitro environ-
ment, they can self-renew or differentiate into 
multiple tissue types.
(b) Fetal stem cells
Cells derived from a fetus that retains the ability to 
divide, proliferate and provide progenitor cells and can 
differentiate into specialized are called fetal stem cell. The 
embryo is referred to as a fetus after the eighth week of 
development. Once a fetal stem cell has been harvested, 
it has the potential to live inde??nitely in the laboratory. 
Fetal stem cells can be isolated from fetal blood and bone 
marrow as well as from other fetal tissues, including liver 
and kidney. Fetal blood is a rich source of haemopoietic 
stem cells (HSGs), which proliferate more rapidly than 
those in cord blood or adult bone marrow.
Chapter 9_Stem cell culture and Organ Culture.indd   213 23-01-2025   11:25:46
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