NCERT Textbook: Bioprocessing and Biomanufacturing | Biotechnology for Class 12 - NEET PDF Download

 Page 1


Students are already aware that living organisms especially 
microbes and biological processes therein are used for 
making various household products (curd/yoghurt, idli, 
kinema, etc.) and industrial products (ethanol). We have 
already learnt in the previous class that living organisms 
are endowed with a variety of metabolic processes which 
lead to the formation of chemical compounds, called 
metabolites, that are broadly classi??ed into primary 
and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are the 
compounds produced directly out of primary metabolic 
pathways associated with essential cellular functions such 
as growth and development. On the contrary, secondary 
metabolites are intermediates or indirect products, 
elaborated by entirely different metabolic pathways called 
secondary metabolic pathways. Secondary metabolites take 
part in a variety of functions. For example, they are used in 
defence for protection against pathogens, phytoplanktons 
and herbivores, to improve tolerance to abiotic stresses; 
as attractants for insects and animals for fertilisation, 
seed dispersal in plants or to contribute in causing the 
displeasure to the unwanted feeders.
10.1 Historical 
Perspective
10.2 Instrumentation 
in Bioprocessing: 
Bioreactor and 
Fermenter Design
10.3 Operational Stages 
of Bioprocess
10.4 Bioprocessing and 
Biomanufacturing 
of Desired Product
Bioprocessing and
Biomanufacturing
10
Chapter 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   231 23-01-2025   11:27:46
Reprint 2025-26
Page 2


Students are already aware that living organisms especially 
microbes and biological processes therein are used for 
making various household products (curd/yoghurt, idli, 
kinema, etc.) and industrial products (ethanol). We have 
already learnt in the previous class that living organisms 
are endowed with a variety of metabolic processes which 
lead to the formation of chemical compounds, called 
metabolites, that are broadly classi??ed into primary 
and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are the 
compounds produced directly out of primary metabolic 
pathways associated with essential cellular functions such 
as growth and development. On the contrary, secondary 
metabolites are intermediates or indirect products, 
elaborated by entirely different metabolic pathways called 
secondary metabolic pathways. Secondary metabolites take 
part in a variety of functions. For example, they are used in 
defence for protection against pathogens, phytoplanktons 
and herbivores, to improve tolerance to abiotic stresses; 
as attractants for insects and animals for fertilisation, 
seed dispersal in plants or to contribute in causing the 
displeasure to the unwanted feeders.
10.1 Historical 
Perspective
10.2 Instrumentation 
in Bioprocessing: 
Bioreactor and 
Fermenter Design
10.3 Operational Stages 
of Bioprocess
10.4 Bioprocessing and 
Biomanufacturing 
of Desired Product
Bioprocessing and
Biomanufacturing
10
Chapter 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   231 23-01-2025   11:27:46
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 232
Nowadays, most of these secondary metabolites have 
a variety of applications in the form of pharmaceuticals, 
dyes, food additives, enzymes, vitamins, etc. In view of  the 
variety of applications, production of these compounds 
(biochemicals) at commercial level requires their production 
in bulk quantities, as quantities produced naturally are 
not suf??cient. These compounds are usually produced at 
commercial level in a puri??ed form through a series of steps 
covered under bioprocessing. For large scale production, 
where large volume (on an average 100–10,000 litres) of 
culture can be processed, the development of bioreactors 
was required.
10.1 Historical Pers Pective After the breakthrough discovery of Penicillin and its 
role in killing bacteria by Alexander Fleming in 1928, 
the signi??cance of products from biological systems was 
well understood. Now, the challenge before the scienti??c/
research community was to enhance the production 
of penicillin.  Production in larger amount for its use in 
treatment would obviously require a systematic process 
using the culture of biological entity in question, i.e., 
Penicillium species. The need of involvement of microbial 
physiologist and other life scientists and technologists 
was identi??ed. This followed the identi??cation of a number 
of products of living organisms and processes especially 
from microbes for application in bioprocessing. Many 
companies and government laboratories, assisted by 
different universities and institutions came together to 
take up this challenge and efforts were made to increase 
the production of penicillin. All this paved a way for  the 
emergence of a new area of biological applications, which 
is now known as bioprocessing. Thus, bioprocessing 
involves biological or living systems or their components 
(e.g., enzymes, chloroplasts, etc.) and chemical engineering 
processes to obtain the desired products at commercial 
level as depicted in Fig. 10.4.
At industrial or commercial stage, all bioprocesses are 
carried out in vessels called fermenter or bioreactor. We 
are also aware that after the advent of rDNA technology, 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   232 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Page 3


Students are already aware that living organisms especially 
microbes and biological processes therein are used for 
making various household products (curd/yoghurt, idli, 
kinema, etc.) and industrial products (ethanol). We have 
already learnt in the previous class that living organisms 
are endowed with a variety of metabolic processes which 
lead to the formation of chemical compounds, called 
metabolites, that are broadly classi??ed into primary 
and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are the 
compounds produced directly out of primary metabolic 
pathways associated with essential cellular functions such 
as growth and development. On the contrary, secondary 
metabolites are intermediates or indirect products, 
elaborated by entirely different metabolic pathways called 
secondary metabolic pathways. Secondary metabolites take 
part in a variety of functions. For example, they are used in 
defence for protection against pathogens, phytoplanktons 
and herbivores, to improve tolerance to abiotic stresses; 
as attractants for insects and animals for fertilisation, 
seed dispersal in plants or to contribute in causing the 
displeasure to the unwanted feeders.
10.1 Historical 
Perspective
10.2 Instrumentation 
in Bioprocessing: 
Bioreactor and 
Fermenter Design
10.3 Operational Stages 
of Bioprocess
10.4 Bioprocessing and 
Biomanufacturing 
of Desired Product
Bioprocessing and
Biomanufacturing
10
Chapter 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   231 23-01-2025   11:27:46
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 232
Nowadays, most of these secondary metabolites have 
a variety of applications in the form of pharmaceuticals, 
dyes, food additives, enzymes, vitamins, etc. In view of  the 
variety of applications, production of these compounds 
(biochemicals) at commercial level requires their production 
in bulk quantities, as quantities produced naturally are 
not suf??cient. These compounds are usually produced at 
commercial level in a puri??ed form through a series of steps 
covered under bioprocessing. For large scale production, 
where large volume (on an average 100–10,000 litres) of 
culture can be processed, the development of bioreactors 
was required.
10.1 Historical Pers Pective After the breakthrough discovery of Penicillin and its 
role in killing bacteria by Alexander Fleming in 1928, 
the signi??cance of products from biological systems was 
well understood. Now, the challenge before the scienti??c/
research community was to enhance the production 
of penicillin.  Production in larger amount for its use in 
treatment would obviously require a systematic process 
using the culture of biological entity in question, i.e., 
Penicillium species. The need of involvement of microbial 
physiologist and other life scientists and technologists 
was identi??ed. This followed the identi??cation of a number 
of products of living organisms and processes especially 
from microbes for application in bioprocessing. Many 
companies and government laboratories, assisted by 
different universities and institutions came together to 
take up this challenge and efforts were made to increase 
the production of penicillin. All this paved a way for  the 
emergence of a new area of biological applications, which 
is now known as bioprocessing. Thus, bioprocessing 
involves biological or living systems or their components 
(e.g., enzymes, chloroplasts, etc.) and chemical engineering 
processes to obtain the desired products at commercial 
level as depicted in Fig. 10.4.
At industrial or commercial stage, all bioprocesses are 
carried out in vessels called fermenter or bioreactor. We 
are also aware that after the advent of rDNA technology, 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   232 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Bioprocessing and Biomanufacturing
233
Box 1
Discovery of Penicillin 
It was in 1928 when Alexander Fleming 
at St. Mary’s Hospital in London, while 
trying to isolate boils causing bacterium, 
Staphylococcus aureus, found that one of the 
Petridishes was contaminated inadvertently 
with a foreign entity. Instead of discarding 
the Petri plate for disinfection, Fleming made 
an important observation in the unwashed 
contaminated plate that no bacteria grew near the invading entity. The observation surprised 
Fleming’s intellect and he soon realised that this chance observation may be a meaningful 
arena of interest.
 Later this antibacterial foreign entity was identi??ed as a common mould, the Penicillium 
notatum, and the metabolite secreted has powerful antibacterial properties called penicillin. 
Its full potential as an effective antibiotic was established by Ernest Chain and Howard 
Florey. This antibiotic was extensively used to treat the American soldiers wounded in World 
War II. Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945 for this discovery.
microbes are extensively employed for the production of a 
number of biological material for the welfare of mankind.
10.2 i nstrumentation in Bio Processing : 
Bioreactor and Fermenter d esign Bioreactor is an engineered vessel made up of glass or 
steel that supports a biologically active environment, 
where cells can be cultivated under aseptic conditions with 
appropriate nutritional and environmental requirements.  
In a bioreactor, the biochemical processes involve 
the cultivation of microbial, plant and animal cells 
or biochemically active substances derived from such 
cell cultures or organisms. Commonly, bioreactors are 
cylindrical and vary in size. The design and components of 
a typical bioreactor are shown in Fig. 10.1.
A bioreactor should ful??l the following requirements:
1. a sterile environment, so that a pure culture may be 
grown without contamination
2. adequate supply of air for cellular respiration in 
culture
3. uniform mixing of nutrients, cells and air throughout 
the bioreactor vessel without causing any shear stress 
to the cultured cells
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   233 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Page 4


Students are already aware that living organisms especially 
microbes and biological processes therein are used for 
making various household products (curd/yoghurt, idli, 
kinema, etc.) and industrial products (ethanol). We have 
already learnt in the previous class that living organisms 
are endowed with a variety of metabolic processes which 
lead to the formation of chemical compounds, called 
metabolites, that are broadly classi??ed into primary 
and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are the 
compounds produced directly out of primary metabolic 
pathways associated with essential cellular functions such 
as growth and development. On the contrary, secondary 
metabolites are intermediates or indirect products, 
elaborated by entirely different metabolic pathways called 
secondary metabolic pathways. Secondary metabolites take 
part in a variety of functions. For example, they are used in 
defence for protection against pathogens, phytoplanktons 
and herbivores, to improve tolerance to abiotic stresses; 
as attractants for insects and animals for fertilisation, 
seed dispersal in plants or to contribute in causing the 
displeasure to the unwanted feeders.
10.1 Historical 
Perspective
10.2 Instrumentation 
in Bioprocessing: 
Bioreactor and 
Fermenter Design
10.3 Operational Stages 
of Bioprocess
10.4 Bioprocessing and 
Biomanufacturing 
of Desired Product
Bioprocessing and
Biomanufacturing
10
Chapter 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   231 23-01-2025   11:27:46
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 232
Nowadays, most of these secondary metabolites have 
a variety of applications in the form of pharmaceuticals, 
dyes, food additives, enzymes, vitamins, etc. In view of  the 
variety of applications, production of these compounds 
(biochemicals) at commercial level requires their production 
in bulk quantities, as quantities produced naturally are 
not suf??cient. These compounds are usually produced at 
commercial level in a puri??ed form through a series of steps 
covered under bioprocessing. For large scale production, 
where large volume (on an average 100–10,000 litres) of 
culture can be processed, the development of bioreactors 
was required.
10.1 Historical Pers Pective After the breakthrough discovery of Penicillin and its 
role in killing bacteria by Alexander Fleming in 1928, 
the signi??cance of products from biological systems was 
well understood. Now, the challenge before the scienti??c/
research community was to enhance the production 
of penicillin.  Production in larger amount for its use in 
treatment would obviously require a systematic process 
using the culture of biological entity in question, i.e., 
Penicillium species. The need of involvement of microbial 
physiologist and other life scientists and technologists 
was identi??ed. This followed the identi??cation of a number 
of products of living organisms and processes especially 
from microbes for application in bioprocessing. Many 
companies and government laboratories, assisted by 
different universities and institutions came together to 
take up this challenge and efforts were made to increase 
the production of penicillin. All this paved a way for  the 
emergence of a new area of biological applications, which 
is now known as bioprocessing. Thus, bioprocessing 
involves biological or living systems or their components 
(e.g., enzymes, chloroplasts, etc.) and chemical engineering 
processes to obtain the desired products at commercial 
level as depicted in Fig. 10.4.
At industrial or commercial stage, all bioprocesses are 
carried out in vessels called fermenter or bioreactor. We 
are also aware that after the advent of rDNA technology, 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   232 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Bioprocessing and Biomanufacturing
233
Box 1
Discovery of Penicillin 
It was in 1928 when Alexander Fleming 
at St. Mary’s Hospital in London, while 
trying to isolate boils causing bacterium, 
Staphylococcus aureus, found that one of the 
Petridishes was contaminated inadvertently 
with a foreign entity. Instead of discarding 
the Petri plate for disinfection, Fleming made 
an important observation in the unwashed 
contaminated plate that no bacteria grew near the invading entity. The observation surprised 
Fleming’s intellect and he soon realised that this chance observation may be a meaningful 
arena of interest.
 Later this antibacterial foreign entity was identi??ed as a common mould, the Penicillium 
notatum, and the metabolite secreted has powerful antibacterial properties called penicillin. 
Its full potential as an effective antibiotic was established by Ernest Chain and Howard 
Florey. This antibiotic was extensively used to treat the American soldiers wounded in World 
War II. Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945 for this discovery.
microbes are extensively employed for the production of a 
number of biological material for the welfare of mankind.
10.2 i nstrumentation in Bio Processing : 
Bioreactor and Fermenter d esign Bioreactor is an engineered vessel made up of glass or 
steel that supports a biologically active environment, 
where cells can be cultivated under aseptic conditions with 
appropriate nutritional and environmental requirements.  
In a bioreactor, the biochemical processes involve 
the cultivation of microbial, plant and animal cells 
or biochemically active substances derived from such 
cell cultures or organisms. Commonly, bioreactors are 
cylindrical and vary in size. The design and components of 
a typical bioreactor are shown in Fig. 10.1.
A bioreactor should ful??l the following requirements:
1. a sterile environment, so that a pure culture may be 
grown without contamination
2. adequate supply of air for cellular respiration in 
culture
3. uniform mixing of nutrients, cells and air throughout 
the bioreactor vessel without causing any shear stress 
to the cultured cells
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   233 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 234
Exhaust
Air Sparger
Baf?e
Water
Outlet
Digital controller
Outlet for ir a
Agitator Shaft
Motor
Inoculation Port
Impeller
Water
Inlet
In
NaoH
Antifoam
In
HCl
Water
Bath
Temperature Probe
pH Probe
(a)
Fig. 10.1: (a) Diagrammatic representation of the design and components of a typical bioreactor  
 (b) Photograph of a laboratory bio-reactor 
(b)
4. a system for maintenance of optimum temperature 
conducive for the growth and product formation in a 
desired culture 
5. a system for monitoring the environmental process 
parameters, such as pH, dissolved oxygen, etc.
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   234 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Page 5


Students are already aware that living organisms especially 
microbes and biological processes therein are used for 
making various household products (curd/yoghurt, idli, 
kinema, etc.) and industrial products (ethanol). We have 
already learnt in the previous class that living organisms 
are endowed with a variety of metabolic processes which 
lead to the formation of chemical compounds, called 
metabolites, that are broadly classi??ed into primary 
and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are the 
compounds produced directly out of primary metabolic 
pathways associated with essential cellular functions such 
as growth and development. On the contrary, secondary 
metabolites are intermediates or indirect products, 
elaborated by entirely different metabolic pathways called 
secondary metabolic pathways. Secondary metabolites take 
part in a variety of functions. For example, they are used in 
defence for protection against pathogens, phytoplanktons 
and herbivores, to improve tolerance to abiotic stresses; 
as attractants for insects and animals for fertilisation, 
seed dispersal in plants or to contribute in causing the 
displeasure to the unwanted feeders.
10.1 Historical 
Perspective
10.2 Instrumentation 
in Bioprocessing: 
Bioreactor and 
Fermenter Design
10.3 Operational Stages 
of Bioprocess
10.4 Bioprocessing and 
Biomanufacturing 
of Desired Product
Bioprocessing and
Biomanufacturing
10
Chapter 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   231 23-01-2025   11:27:46
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 232
Nowadays, most of these secondary metabolites have 
a variety of applications in the form of pharmaceuticals, 
dyes, food additives, enzymes, vitamins, etc. In view of  the 
variety of applications, production of these compounds 
(biochemicals) at commercial level requires their production 
in bulk quantities, as quantities produced naturally are 
not suf??cient. These compounds are usually produced at 
commercial level in a puri??ed form through a series of steps 
covered under bioprocessing. For large scale production, 
where large volume (on an average 100–10,000 litres) of 
culture can be processed, the development of bioreactors 
was required.
10.1 Historical Pers Pective After the breakthrough discovery of Penicillin and its 
role in killing bacteria by Alexander Fleming in 1928, 
the signi??cance of products from biological systems was 
well understood. Now, the challenge before the scienti??c/
research community was to enhance the production 
of penicillin.  Production in larger amount for its use in 
treatment would obviously require a systematic process 
using the culture of biological entity in question, i.e., 
Penicillium species. The need of involvement of microbial 
physiologist and other life scientists and technologists 
was identi??ed. This followed the identi??cation of a number 
of products of living organisms and processes especially 
from microbes for application in bioprocessing. Many 
companies and government laboratories, assisted by 
different universities and institutions came together to 
take up this challenge and efforts were made to increase 
the production of penicillin. All this paved a way for  the 
emergence of a new area of biological applications, which 
is now known as bioprocessing. Thus, bioprocessing 
involves biological or living systems or their components 
(e.g., enzymes, chloroplasts, etc.) and chemical engineering 
processes to obtain the desired products at commercial 
level as depicted in Fig. 10.4.
At industrial or commercial stage, all bioprocesses are 
carried out in vessels called fermenter or bioreactor. We 
are also aware that after the advent of rDNA technology, 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   232 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Bioprocessing and Biomanufacturing
233
Box 1
Discovery of Penicillin 
It was in 1928 when Alexander Fleming 
at St. Mary’s Hospital in London, while 
trying to isolate boils causing bacterium, 
Staphylococcus aureus, found that one of the 
Petridishes was contaminated inadvertently 
with a foreign entity. Instead of discarding 
the Petri plate for disinfection, Fleming made 
an important observation in the unwashed 
contaminated plate that no bacteria grew near the invading entity. The observation surprised 
Fleming’s intellect and he soon realised that this chance observation may be a meaningful 
arena of interest.
 Later this antibacterial foreign entity was identi??ed as a common mould, the Penicillium 
notatum, and the metabolite secreted has powerful antibacterial properties called penicillin. 
Its full potential as an effective antibiotic was established by Ernest Chain and Howard 
Florey. This antibiotic was extensively used to treat the American soldiers wounded in World 
War II. Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945 for this discovery.
microbes are extensively employed for the production of a 
number of biological material for the welfare of mankind.
10.2 i nstrumentation in Bio Processing : 
Bioreactor and Fermenter d esign Bioreactor is an engineered vessel made up of glass or 
steel that supports a biologically active environment, 
where cells can be cultivated under aseptic conditions with 
appropriate nutritional and environmental requirements.  
In a bioreactor, the biochemical processes involve 
the cultivation of microbial, plant and animal cells 
or biochemically active substances derived from such 
cell cultures or organisms. Commonly, bioreactors are 
cylindrical and vary in size. The design and components of 
a typical bioreactor are shown in Fig. 10.1.
A bioreactor should ful??l the following requirements:
1. a sterile environment, so that a pure culture may be 
grown without contamination
2. adequate supply of air for cellular respiration in 
culture
3. uniform mixing of nutrients, cells and air throughout 
the bioreactor vessel without causing any shear stress 
to the cultured cells
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   233 23-01-2025   11:27:47
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 234
Exhaust
Air Sparger
Baf?e
Water
Outlet
Digital controller
Outlet for ir a
Agitator Shaft
Motor
Inoculation Port
Impeller
Water
Inlet
In
NaoH
Antifoam
In
HCl
Water
Bath
Temperature Probe
pH Probe
(a)
Fig. 10.1: (a) Diagrammatic representation of the design and components of a typical bioreactor  
 (b) Photograph of a laboratory bio-reactor 
(b)
4. a system for maintenance of optimum temperature 
conducive for the growth and product formation in a 
desired culture 
5. a system for monitoring the environmental process 
parameters, such as pH, dissolved oxygen, etc.
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   234 23-01-2025   11:27:47
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Bioprocessing and Biomanufacturing
235
Thus, in order to ful??l these requirements a typical 
bioreactor consists of the following:
•	 Agitator shaft: It helps in mixing contents of the 
bioreactor and keeps the cells in perfect homogenous 
conditions that provide better transport of nutrient 
and oxygen throughout the running bioprocess. An 
impeller is ??xed at the bottom of an agitator shaft.
•	 Sparger: It helps in providing an adequate and 
continuous supply of sterilised air (oxygen) using 
micro??lters for growing cells submerged in the liquid 
media inside the bioreactor system.
•	 Baffle: It helps in breaking the vortex formation, which 
is highly undesirable as it changes the centre of gravity 
of the system  making it consume extra power to run 
the system.
•	 Jacket: It provides area for the circulation of water 
at the given temperature for maintenance of optimum 
temperature inside the device required for the growth 
of cultivated cells and product formation.
•	 Sensitivity probe for temperature and pH: These 
are the probes to sense temperature and hydrogen ion 
concentration of a bioprocess. 
•	Digital controller for controlling process 
parameters: Digital controller is connected to 
bioreactor through probes and its one separate unit is 
connected to a water bath that pumps water of desired 
temperature in and out of the jacket present around 
the bioreactor unit for the maintenance of temperature 
throughout. It is also connected to pH probes and 
bottles containing 1M NaOH and 1N HCl. As the 
probe senses acidity or alkalinity, digital controller 
commands any of the two bottles for addition of either 
dilute NaOH or HCl for the maintenance of the desired 
pH. All process parameters including temperature, 
pH, speed of stirring (rpm), etc., are exhibited over the 
display of the controller.
10.2.1 Types of bioreactors
On the basis of the design or con??guration, important 
types of bioreactors are discussed below: 
•	Stirred tank reactors are the most conventional 
bioreactors. In these reactors, agitator facilitates the 
Chapter 10_Bioprocessing and Bio-manuf.indd   235 23-01-2025   11:27:47
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