Textbook: Ancient India : Cultural | History and Civics Class 6 (Maharashtra Board) PDF Download

 Page 1


48 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 48 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
10.1   Language and literature
10.2   Life of the people
10.3   Science
10.4   Centres of Education
10.5   Art and architecture
10.1   Language and literature
There was an uninterrupted literary 
tradition in Ancient India. This literature 
was produced in the Sanskrit, 
Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Tamil languages. 
It included religious literature, treatises on 
grammar, epics, plays, stories, etc.
Sangham Literature : ‘Sangham’ 
means a gathering of learned men. The 
literature compiled in such gatherings is 
known as ‘Sangham Literature’. It is the 
most ancient literature in Tamil. 
‘Silappadhikaram’ and ‘Manimekhalai’ 
are two of its well-known epics. From 
Sangham literature, we learn about the 
political and social life in South India 
during the period.
Religious literature : The important 
texts include Aagamgranth, Tipitaka and 
Bhagwad Gita. 
The ‘Jain Agamgranthas’ are written 
in the Prakrit languages of Ardhamagadhi, 
Shaurseni and Maharashtri. The 
Agamgranthas are a collection of the 
teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir. Literary 
works like Mahapuranas, biographies, 
stories, etc. are available in the 
Apabhramsha language. Siddhasen 
Diwakar wrote ‘Sammaisutta’ a work in 
Prakrit, on jurisprudence. Vimalsuri has 
told the story of Rama in ‘Paumchariya’, 
a poetic work in Prakrit. Haribhadrasuri’s 
‘Samaraichchakaha’ and Udyotansuri’s 
‘Kuvalayamalakaha’ are well known 
works. 
Tipitika has three pitaka’s or parts. 
The word pitaka means a basket or 
collections. Here, it means a section. The 
Tipitaka is written in Pali. It consists of 
three categories of texts. 1. Sutta Pitaka : It 
includes the texts of Gautama Buddhas 
teachings or sermons. They are called 
suktas. 2. Vinay Pitaka : The word Vinay 
here means ‘rules’. The Vinay Pitaka gives 
the rules of behaviour which bhikkhus and 
bhikkhunis in the Bauddha Sangha should 
follow in their day-to-day lives.  
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka : In this, Buddhist
doctrine has been explained. A text titled
‘Attakatha’ (Arthakatha) which explains
the Tipitakas, is well-known. Learned
women composed gathas (narratives)
about their own experiences. They have
been compiled in the ‘Therigatha’. They
are in the Pali language.
The ‘Bhagvad Gita’, which is a sacred 
10. Ancient India : Cultural
It is believed that most of the 
languages in the region from North 
India up to Maharashtra are derived 
from Prakrit and Sanskrit. The word 
‘prakrit’ is derived from a word meaning 
‘natural’. The prakrit languages were 
languages in daily use of the people. 
They can be divided into four groups, 
namely, the Paishachi, Shauraseni, 
Magadhi and Maharashtri languages. 
Marathi developed from Maharashtri. 
In this process of the development of 
modern languages like Marathi from the 
prakrit languages, their original forms 
changed. They are called ‘Apabhramsha 
languages’. Modern languages have 
developed from Apabhramsha languages.
48
Do you know ?
Page 2


48 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 48 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
10.1   Language and literature
10.2   Life of the people
10.3   Science
10.4   Centres of Education
10.5   Art and architecture
10.1   Language and literature
There was an uninterrupted literary 
tradition in Ancient India. This literature 
was produced in the Sanskrit, 
Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Tamil languages. 
It included religious literature, treatises on 
grammar, epics, plays, stories, etc.
Sangham Literature : ‘Sangham’ 
means a gathering of learned men. The 
literature compiled in such gatherings is 
known as ‘Sangham Literature’. It is the 
most ancient literature in Tamil. 
‘Silappadhikaram’ and ‘Manimekhalai’ 
are two of its well-known epics. From 
Sangham literature, we learn about the 
political and social life in South India 
during the period.
Religious literature : The important 
texts include Aagamgranth, Tipitaka and 
Bhagwad Gita. 
The ‘Jain Agamgranthas’ are written 
in the Prakrit languages of Ardhamagadhi, 
Shaurseni and Maharashtri. The 
Agamgranthas are a collection of the 
teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir. Literary 
works like Mahapuranas, biographies, 
stories, etc. are available in the 
Apabhramsha language. Siddhasen 
Diwakar wrote ‘Sammaisutta’ a work in 
Prakrit, on jurisprudence. Vimalsuri has 
told the story of Rama in ‘Paumchariya’, 
a poetic work in Prakrit. Haribhadrasuri’s 
‘Samaraichchakaha’ and Udyotansuri’s 
‘Kuvalayamalakaha’ are well known 
works. 
Tipitika has three pitaka’s or parts. 
The word pitaka means a basket or 
collections. Here, it means a section. The 
Tipitaka is written in Pali. It consists of 
three categories of texts. 1. Sutta Pitaka : It 
includes the texts of Gautama Buddhas 
teachings or sermons. They are called 
suktas. 2. Vinay Pitaka : The word Vinay 
here means ‘rules’. The Vinay Pitaka gives 
the rules of behaviour which bhikkhus and 
bhikkhunis in the Bauddha Sangha should 
follow in their day-to-day lives.  
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka : In this, Buddhist
doctrine has been explained. A text titled
‘Attakatha’ (Arthakatha) which explains
the Tipitakas, is well-known. Learned
women composed gathas (narratives)
about their own experiences. They have
been compiled in the ‘Therigatha’. They
are in the Pali language.
The ‘Bhagvad Gita’, which is a sacred 
10. Ancient India : Cultural
It is believed that most of the 
languages in the region from North 
India up to Maharashtra are derived 
from Prakrit and Sanskrit. The word 
‘prakrit’ is derived from a word meaning 
‘natural’. The prakrit languages were 
languages in daily use of the people. 
They can be divided into four groups, 
namely, the Paishachi, Shauraseni, 
Magadhi and Maharashtri languages. 
Marathi developed from Maharashtri. 
In this process of the development of 
modern languages like Marathi from the 
prakrit languages, their original forms 
changed. They are called ‘Apabhramsha 
languages’. Modern languages have 
developed from Apabhramsha languages.
48
Do you know ?
49
Arsha and classical epics : 
‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are the 
two ‘Arsha’ epics of ancient India. ‘Arsha’ 
means composed by rishis or sages. The 
‘Ramayana’ was composed by the rishi 
‘Valmiki’. The main character of 
Ramayana is Shriram. ‘Mahabharata’ has 
been composed by the Sage Vyas. Its main 
theme is the war between the Kauravas 
and Pandavas. It also tells us about Lord 
Krishna’s life. The Mahabharata provides 
a comprehensive picture of the various 
human sentiments and  emotions and their 
consequences.
Sometimes, there is such a period in 
the history of language, literature and art, 
that its glory remains undiminished even 
later on. The art, literature, etc. produced 
in such a period is said to be ‘classical’. 
‘Raghuvansha’ and  ‘Kumarsambhava’ by 
Kalidasa, ‘Kiratarjuniya’ by Bharavi and 
‘Shishupalvadh’ by Magha are well-known 
compositions of the ancient period written 
in classical Sanskrit.  
Theatre : India has an ancient tradition 
of telling a story through songs, music and 
dance. These arts have been discussed in 
great detail in the ‘Natyashastra’ by 
Bharatmuni. When these arts are presented 
Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra in 
which he discusses at length, what 
constitutes on excellent administrative 
system. 
Treatises on Grammar : 
‘Ashtadhyayi’ written by the grammarian 
Panini is considered to be the standard 
work on Sanskrit grammar. Patanjali wrote 
‘Mahabhashya’. It explains the principles 
given in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’.
Arthashastra : This is a work by 
Kautilya. It consists of detailed 
discussions of administrative matters 
such as the duties of a king, criteria 
for selecting a minister, systems of 
defence, types of forts, the formation 
of an army, plans for espionage, 
organization of the treasury and other 
offices, judicial system, investigation 
of theft, types of punishment, etc.
Do you know ?
Adi Shankaracharya
text of the Hindus, is a part of the 
Mahabharata. The Bhagvad Gita tells us 
that each one of us should do our duty 
without expecting rewards. It also says 
that the path of devotion to God is open 
to all.
Adi Shankaracharya lived during the 
eighth century CE. He emphasised 
knowledge and renunciation. He wrote 
commentaries explaining the ‘Upanishads’, 
‘Brahmasutras’ and the ‘Bhagvad Gita’. 
He established four muths in four directions 
of India at Badrinath, Dwarka, 
Jagannathpuri and Shringeri. 
Page 3


48 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 48 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
10.1   Language and literature
10.2   Life of the people
10.3   Science
10.4   Centres of Education
10.5   Art and architecture
10.1   Language and literature
There was an uninterrupted literary 
tradition in Ancient India. This literature 
was produced in the Sanskrit, 
Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Tamil languages. 
It included religious literature, treatises on 
grammar, epics, plays, stories, etc.
Sangham Literature : ‘Sangham’ 
means a gathering of learned men. The 
literature compiled in such gatherings is 
known as ‘Sangham Literature’. It is the 
most ancient literature in Tamil. 
‘Silappadhikaram’ and ‘Manimekhalai’ 
are two of its well-known epics. From 
Sangham literature, we learn about the 
political and social life in South India 
during the period.
Religious literature : The important 
texts include Aagamgranth, Tipitaka and 
Bhagwad Gita. 
The ‘Jain Agamgranthas’ are written 
in the Prakrit languages of Ardhamagadhi, 
Shaurseni and Maharashtri. The 
Agamgranthas are a collection of the 
teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir. Literary 
works like Mahapuranas, biographies, 
stories, etc. are available in the 
Apabhramsha language. Siddhasen 
Diwakar wrote ‘Sammaisutta’ a work in 
Prakrit, on jurisprudence. Vimalsuri has 
told the story of Rama in ‘Paumchariya’, 
a poetic work in Prakrit. Haribhadrasuri’s 
‘Samaraichchakaha’ and Udyotansuri’s 
‘Kuvalayamalakaha’ are well known 
works. 
Tipitika has three pitaka’s or parts. 
The word pitaka means a basket or 
collections. Here, it means a section. The 
Tipitaka is written in Pali. It consists of 
three categories of texts. 1. Sutta Pitaka : It 
includes the texts of Gautama Buddhas 
teachings or sermons. They are called 
suktas. 2. Vinay Pitaka : The word Vinay 
here means ‘rules’. The Vinay Pitaka gives 
the rules of behaviour which bhikkhus and 
bhikkhunis in the Bauddha Sangha should 
follow in their day-to-day lives.  
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka : In this, Buddhist
doctrine has been explained. A text titled
‘Attakatha’ (Arthakatha) which explains
the Tipitakas, is well-known. Learned
women composed gathas (narratives)
about their own experiences. They have
been compiled in the ‘Therigatha’. They
are in the Pali language.
The ‘Bhagvad Gita’, which is a sacred 
10. Ancient India : Cultural
It is believed that most of the 
languages in the region from North 
India up to Maharashtra are derived 
from Prakrit and Sanskrit. The word 
‘prakrit’ is derived from a word meaning 
‘natural’. The prakrit languages were 
languages in daily use of the people. 
They can be divided into four groups, 
namely, the Paishachi, Shauraseni, 
Magadhi and Maharashtri languages. 
Marathi developed from Maharashtri. 
In this process of the development of 
modern languages like Marathi from the 
prakrit languages, their original forms 
changed. They are called ‘Apabhramsha 
languages’. Modern languages have 
developed from Apabhramsha languages.
48
Do you know ?
49
Arsha and classical epics : 
‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are the 
two ‘Arsha’ epics of ancient India. ‘Arsha’ 
means composed by rishis or sages. The 
‘Ramayana’ was composed by the rishi 
‘Valmiki’. The main character of 
Ramayana is Shriram. ‘Mahabharata’ has 
been composed by the Sage Vyas. Its main 
theme is the war between the Kauravas 
and Pandavas. It also tells us about Lord 
Krishna’s life. The Mahabharata provides 
a comprehensive picture of the various 
human sentiments and  emotions and their 
consequences.
Sometimes, there is such a period in 
the history of language, literature and art, 
that its glory remains undiminished even 
later on. The art, literature, etc. produced 
in such a period is said to be ‘classical’. 
‘Raghuvansha’ and  ‘Kumarsambhava’ by 
Kalidasa, ‘Kiratarjuniya’ by Bharavi and 
‘Shishupalvadh’ by Magha are well-known 
compositions of the ancient period written 
in classical Sanskrit.  
Theatre : India has an ancient tradition 
of telling a story through songs, music and 
dance. These arts have been discussed in 
great detail in the ‘Natyashastra’ by 
Bharatmuni. When these arts are presented 
Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra in 
which he discusses at length, what 
constitutes on excellent administrative 
system. 
Treatises on Grammar : 
‘Ashtadhyayi’ written by the grammarian 
Panini is considered to be the standard 
work on Sanskrit grammar. Patanjali wrote 
‘Mahabhashya’. It explains the principles 
given in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’.
Arthashastra : This is a work by 
Kautilya. It consists of detailed 
discussions of administrative matters 
such as the duties of a king, criteria 
for selecting a minister, systems of 
defence, types of forts, the formation 
of an army, plans for espionage, 
organization of the treasury and other 
offices, judicial system, investigation 
of theft, types of punishment, etc.
Do you know ?
Adi Shankaracharya
text of the Hindus, is a part of the 
Mahabharata. The Bhagvad Gita tells us 
that each one of us should do our duty 
without expecting rewards. It also says 
that the path of devotion to God is open 
to all.
Adi Shankaracharya lived during the 
eighth century CE. He emphasised 
knowledge and renunciation. He wrote 
commentaries explaining the ‘Upanishads’, 
‘Brahmasutras’ and the ‘Bhagvad Gita’. 
He established four muths in four directions 
of India at Badrinath, Dwarka, 
Jagannathpuri and Shringeri. 
50
with supporting dialogues, they are known 
as theatre. Among the ancient Sanskrit 
plays, ‘Swapnavasavadutta’ by Bhasa, 
‘Abhijnanshakuntal’ by Kalidasa, etc. are 
famous.
Narrative Literature ? In the ancient
times, storytelling was used to educate 
people through entertainment. Gunadhya’s 
‘Bruhatkatha’ written in a language called 
‘Paishachi’ is well-known. ‘Panchatantra’ 
composed by Pandit Vishnusharma is an 
excellent example of narrative literature. 
This text has been translated into many 
languages. Similarly, Baudhha Jataka 
tales are also very well-known.
10.3  Science
Medicine : Indian medical science is 
known as ‘Ayurveda’. It has a very old 
tradition. It seeks to understand the 
symptoms of an illness, its diagnosis and 
treatment. Also, much thought has been 
given to prevention of illness. Jeevaka was 
a well known vaidya, at the court of King 
Bimbisara. The ‘Charaka Samhita’ contains 
detailed information about clinical diagnosis 
and pharmacy. It was written by Charak. 
The famous surgeon Sushruta has discussed 
the diagnosis of different ailments and their 
remedies in his treatise the ‘Sushruta 
Samhita’. The importance of this text is 
that it discusses the different causes leading 
to injuries, fractures, their types and the 
various types of surgeries required for them. 
The text was translated into the Arabic 
language and was called ‘Kitaab-e-susud’. 
Vagbhata also wrote many books on 
medical science.  The ‘Ashtang-sangraha’ 
and ‘Ashtang-hridayasamhita’ are the most 
important of them. The Bauddha bhikkhu, 
Siddha Nagarjuna in his book 
‘Rasaratnakara’ describes various 
chemicals and metals. 
Mathematics and Astronomy : The 
ancient Indians had studied Mathematics 
and Astronomy at great depth. Indians 
were the first to use the numerals 1 to 9 
and zero. They invented the concept of 
decimal system in which the value of a 
digit changes according to its place ekam, 
daham, (units, tens) etc. The scientist 
Aryabhata wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’, 
which included many formulae for 
mathematical operations. Aryabhata was 
also an astronomer. He stated that the 
earth revolves around the sun. Varahmihir 
wrote the famous text ‘Panchasidhantika’ 
in the sixth century AD. This text discusses 
principles of Indian astronomy along with 
the principles of astronomy from the Greek, 
Roman and Egyptian civilizations. The 
10.2  Life of the people
The literature of ancient India sheds 
light on the way of life of the common 
people of the time. Those were prosperous 
times, due to the flourishing internal as 
well as foreign trade. The society was 
divided into different castes. There were 
organizations of traders as well as artisans. 
These organizations were called shrenis. 
Trade was carried out by sea as well as 
land routes. Indian goods like fine textiles, 
ivory, precious stones, spices, beautifully 
made earthern pottery were in great 
demand in foreign countries. The main 
crops were rice, wheat, barley and lentil 
(masoor). The diet of the people included 
food items made from these besides meat, 
fish, milk, ghee and fruits. The people 
mostly wore cotton garments, though silk 
and woollen garments were also worn. 
Their clothes resembled today’s dhoti, 
uparane, mundase, saree, etc. The concept 
of stitching clothes was introduced in India 
during the Kushana period. 
Choose a tale from the Panchatantra. 
Write a skit based on it and enact it.
Try this.
Page 4


48 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 48 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
10.1   Language and literature
10.2   Life of the people
10.3   Science
10.4   Centres of Education
10.5   Art and architecture
10.1   Language and literature
There was an uninterrupted literary 
tradition in Ancient India. This literature 
was produced in the Sanskrit, 
Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Tamil languages. 
It included religious literature, treatises on 
grammar, epics, plays, stories, etc.
Sangham Literature : ‘Sangham’ 
means a gathering of learned men. The 
literature compiled in such gatherings is 
known as ‘Sangham Literature’. It is the 
most ancient literature in Tamil. 
‘Silappadhikaram’ and ‘Manimekhalai’ 
are two of its well-known epics. From 
Sangham literature, we learn about the 
political and social life in South India 
during the period.
Religious literature : The important 
texts include Aagamgranth, Tipitaka and 
Bhagwad Gita. 
The ‘Jain Agamgranthas’ are written 
in the Prakrit languages of Ardhamagadhi, 
Shaurseni and Maharashtri. The 
Agamgranthas are a collection of the 
teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir. Literary 
works like Mahapuranas, biographies, 
stories, etc. are available in the 
Apabhramsha language. Siddhasen 
Diwakar wrote ‘Sammaisutta’ a work in 
Prakrit, on jurisprudence. Vimalsuri has 
told the story of Rama in ‘Paumchariya’, 
a poetic work in Prakrit. Haribhadrasuri’s 
‘Samaraichchakaha’ and Udyotansuri’s 
‘Kuvalayamalakaha’ are well known 
works. 
Tipitika has three pitaka’s or parts. 
The word pitaka means a basket or 
collections. Here, it means a section. The 
Tipitaka is written in Pali. It consists of 
three categories of texts. 1. Sutta Pitaka : It 
includes the texts of Gautama Buddhas 
teachings or sermons. They are called 
suktas. 2. Vinay Pitaka : The word Vinay 
here means ‘rules’. The Vinay Pitaka gives 
the rules of behaviour which bhikkhus and 
bhikkhunis in the Bauddha Sangha should 
follow in their day-to-day lives.  
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka : In this, Buddhist
doctrine has been explained. A text titled
‘Attakatha’ (Arthakatha) which explains
the Tipitakas, is well-known. Learned
women composed gathas (narratives)
about their own experiences. They have
been compiled in the ‘Therigatha’. They
are in the Pali language.
The ‘Bhagvad Gita’, which is a sacred 
10. Ancient India : Cultural
It is believed that most of the 
languages in the region from North 
India up to Maharashtra are derived 
from Prakrit and Sanskrit. The word 
‘prakrit’ is derived from a word meaning 
‘natural’. The prakrit languages were 
languages in daily use of the people. 
They can be divided into four groups, 
namely, the Paishachi, Shauraseni, 
Magadhi and Maharashtri languages. 
Marathi developed from Maharashtri. 
In this process of the development of 
modern languages like Marathi from the 
prakrit languages, their original forms 
changed. They are called ‘Apabhramsha 
languages’. Modern languages have 
developed from Apabhramsha languages.
48
Do you know ?
49
Arsha and classical epics : 
‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are the 
two ‘Arsha’ epics of ancient India. ‘Arsha’ 
means composed by rishis or sages. The 
‘Ramayana’ was composed by the rishi 
‘Valmiki’. The main character of 
Ramayana is Shriram. ‘Mahabharata’ has 
been composed by the Sage Vyas. Its main 
theme is the war between the Kauravas 
and Pandavas. It also tells us about Lord 
Krishna’s life. The Mahabharata provides 
a comprehensive picture of the various 
human sentiments and  emotions and their 
consequences.
Sometimes, there is such a period in 
the history of language, literature and art, 
that its glory remains undiminished even 
later on. The art, literature, etc. produced 
in such a period is said to be ‘classical’. 
‘Raghuvansha’ and  ‘Kumarsambhava’ by 
Kalidasa, ‘Kiratarjuniya’ by Bharavi and 
‘Shishupalvadh’ by Magha are well-known 
compositions of the ancient period written 
in classical Sanskrit.  
Theatre : India has an ancient tradition 
of telling a story through songs, music and 
dance. These arts have been discussed in 
great detail in the ‘Natyashastra’ by 
Bharatmuni. When these arts are presented 
Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra in 
which he discusses at length, what 
constitutes on excellent administrative 
system. 
Treatises on Grammar : 
‘Ashtadhyayi’ written by the grammarian 
Panini is considered to be the standard 
work on Sanskrit grammar. Patanjali wrote 
‘Mahabhashya’. It explains the principles 
given in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’.
Arthashastra : This is a work by 
Kautilya. It consists of detailed 
discussions of administrative matters 
such as the duties of a king, criteria 
for selecting a minister, systems of 
defence, types of forts, the formation 
of an army, plans for espionage, 
organization of the treasury and other 
offices, judicial system, investigation 
of theft, types of punishment, etc.
Do you know ?
Adi Shankaracharya
text of the Hindus, is a part of the 
Mahabharata. The Bhagvad Gita tells us 
that each one of us should do our duty 
without expecting rewards. It also says 
that the path of devotion to God is open 
to all.
Adi Shankaracharya lived during the 
eighth century CE. He emphasised 
knowledge and renunciation. He wrote 
commentaries explaining the ‘Upanishads’, 
‘Brahmasutras’ and the ‘Bhagvad Gita’. 
He established four muths in four directions 
of India at Badrinath, Dwarka, 
Jagannathpuri and Shringeri. 
50
with supporting dialogues, they are known 
as theatre. Among the ancient Sanskrit 
plays, ‘Swapnavasavadutta’ by Bhasa, 
‘Abhijnanshakuntal’ by Kalidasa, etc. are 
famous.
Narrative Literature ? In the ancient
times, storytelling was used to educate 
people through entertainment. Gunadhya’s 
‘Bruhatkatha’ written in a language called 
‘Paishachi’ is well-known. ‘Panchatantra’ 
composed by Pandit Vishnusharma is an 
excellent example of narrative literature. 
This text has been translated into many 
languages. Similarly, Baudhha Jataka 
tales are also very well-known.
10.3  Science
Medicine : Indian medical science is 
known as ‘Ayurveda’. It has a very old 
tradition. It seeks to understand the 
symptoms of an illness, its diagnosis and 
treatment. Also, much thought has been 
given to prevention of illness. Jeevaka was 
a well known vaidya, at the court of King 
Bimbisara. The ‘Charaka Samhita’ contains 
detailed information about clinical diagnosis 
and pharmacy. It was written by Charak. 
The famous surgeon Sushruta has discussed 
the diagnosis of different ailments and their 
remedies in his treatise the ‘Sushruta 
Samhita’. The importance of this text is 
that it discusses the different causes leading 
to injuries, fractures, their types and the 
various types of surgeries required for them. 
The text was translated into the Arabic 
language and was called ‘Kitaab-e-susud’. 
Vagbhata also wrote many books on 
medical science.  The ‘Ashtang-sangraha’ 
and ‘Ashtang-hridayasamhita’ are the most 
important of them. The Bauddha bhikkhu, 
Siddha Nagarjuna in his book 
‘Rasaratnakara’ describes various 
chemicals and metals. 
Mathematics and Astronomy : The 
ancient Indians had studied Mathematics 
and Astronomy at great depth. Indians 
were the first to use the numerals 1 to 9 
and zero. They invented the concept of 
decimal system in which the value of a 
digit changes according to its place ekam, 
daham, (units, tens) etc. The scientist 
Aryabhata wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’, 
which included many formulae for 
mathematical operations. Aryabhata was 
also an astronomer. He stated that the 
earth revolves around the sun. Varahmihir 
wrote the famous text ‘Panchasidhantika’ 
in the sixth century AD. This text discusses 
principles of Indian astronomy along with 
the principles of astronomy from the Greek, 
Roman and Egyptian civilizations. The 
10.2  Life of the people
The literature of ancient India sheds 
light on the way of life of the common 
people of the time. Those were prosperous 
times, due to the flourishing internal as 
well as foreign trade. The society was 
divided into different castes. There were 
organizations of traders as well as artisans. 
These organizations were called shrenis. 
Trade was carried out by sea as well as 
land routes. Indian goods like fine textiles, 
ivory, precious stones, spices, beautifully 
made earthern pottery were in great 
demand in foreign countries. The main 
crops were rice, wheat, barley and lentil 
(masoor). The diet of the people included 
food items made from these besides meat, 
fish, milk, ghee and fruits. The people 
mostly wore cotton garments, though silk 
and woollen garments were also worn. 
Their clothes resembled today’s dhoti, 
uparane, mundase, saree, etc. The concept 
of stitching clothes was introduced in India 
during the Kushana period. 
Choose a tale from the Panchatantra. 
Write a skit based on it and enact it.
Try this.
51
literature, Buddhist philosophy, economics, 
logic, etc.
Varanasi : The river Ganga has two 
tributaries  - Varana and Asi. The city 
located between them came to be called 
Varanasi. Since ancient times, it has had 
centres which provided education in the 
areas of Vedic as well as Jain and Buddhist 
philosophy. 
Valabhi : Valabhi was an ancient city 
in Saurashtra, Gujarat. From the fifth to 
the eighth century CE, it was an important 
centre of Jain and Buddhist philosophy. 
Yuan Chwang and Itsing, the Chinese 
Bauddha bhikkhus had visited Valabhi.
Nalanda University : The remains of 
the ancient Nalanda University can be 
found near today’s Patna city in Bihar. 
Emperor Harshavardhan made generous 
donations to this university. According to 
the descriptions of Yuan Chwang and 
Itsing, Nalanda University could 
accommodate thousands of students. The 
library stocked thousands of books. 
Students seeking admission to the university 
had to appear for an examination at the 
entrance gate.
The seal of the Nalanda Mahavihara
texts of the mathematician Brahmagupta 
who lived in the seventh century CE, were 
translated into the Arabic language.
Vikramshila University : This 
university was located near today’s 
Bhagalpur in Bihar. It was established by 
a king named Dharmapal in the eighth 
century CE. It had six viharas, each having 
its own separate entrance.
Kanad : Kanad wrote the book 
called ‘Vaisheshik Darshan’. It mainly 
discusses anu and paramanu. According 
to Kanad, the universe is full of 
innumerable objects. These objects are 
nothing but the different forms of ‘anu’s. 
These forms might change but the anu 
remains unchanged.
Do you know ?
10.4  Centres of education
There were many famous centres of 
education in ancient India. Students from 
other countries also came there for their 
studies.
Takshashila University : Takshashila 
was an important city on the ancient Indian 
trade route. Today, it is in Pakistan. 
Archaeological evidence found there 
suggests that the city was established in 
the sixth century BCE Jeevaka, a 
contemporary of Gautama Buddha and a 
famous vaidya, had studied at Takshashila 
University. By the fourth century BCE, the 
fame of the university had spread far and 
wide. Chandragupta Maurya the founder 
of the Maurya Empire was educated at this 
university. The grammarian Panini and the 
vaidya Charaka were also students of 
Takshashila University. The Greek 
historians who accompanied Alexander 
have also given a description of the 
university. They have stated that such  
a university did not exist anywhere in 
Greece. The famous Chinese Bauddha 
bhikkhu, Fa Hien who came to India 
around 400 CE also visited the Takshashila 
University. The university provided 
education in various subjects such as Vedic 
Page 5


48 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 48 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
10.1   Language and literature
10.2   Life of the people
10.3   Science
10.4   Centres of Education
10.5   Art and architecture
10.1   Language and literature
There was an uninterrupted literary 
tradition in Ancient India. This literature 
was produced in the Sanskrit, 
Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Tamil languages. 
It included religious literature, treatises on 
grammar, epics, plays, stories, etc.
Sangham Literature : ‘Sangham’ 
means a gathering of learned men. The 
literature compiled in such gatherings is 
known as ‘Sangham Literature’. It is the 
most ancient literature in Tamil. 
‘Silappadhikaram’ and ‘Manimekhalai’ 
are two of its well-known epics. From 
Sangham literature, we learn about the 
political and social life in South India 
during the period.
Religious literature : The important 
texts include Aagamgranth, Tipitaka and 
Bhagwad Gita. 
The ‘Jain Agamgranthas’ are written 
in the Prakrit languages of Ardhamagadhi, 
Shaurseni and Maharashtri. The 
Agamgranthas are a collection of the 
teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir. Literary 
works like Mahapuranas, biographies, 
stories, etc. are available in the 
Apabhramsha language. Siddhasen 
Diwakar wrote ‘Sammaisutta’ a work in 
Prakrit, on jurisprudence. Vimalsuri has 
told the story of Rama in ‘Paumchariya’, 
a poetic work in Prakrit. Haribhadrasuri’s 
‘Samaraichchakaha’ and Udyotansuri’s 
‘Kuvalayamalakaha’ are well known 
works. 
Tipitika has three pitaka’s or parts. 
The word pitaka means a basket or 
collections. Here, it means a section. The 
Tipitaka is written in Pali. It consists of 
three categories of texts. 1. Sutta Pitaka : It 
includes the texts of Gautama Buddhas 
teachings or sermons. They are called 
suktas. 2. Vinay Pitaka : The word Vinay 
here means ‘rules’. The Vinay Pitaka gives 
the rules of behaviour which bhikkhus and 
bhikkhunis in the Bauddha Sangha should 
follow in their day-to-day lives.  
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka : In this, Buddhist
doctrine has been explained. A text titled
‘Attakatha’ (Arthakatha) which explains
the Tipitakas, is well-known. Learned
women composed gathas (narratives)
about their own experiences. They have
been compiled in the ‘Therigatha’. They
are in the Pali language.
The ‘Bhagvad Gita’, which is a sacred 
10. Ancient India : Cultural
It is believed that most of the 
languages in the region from North 
India up to Maharashtra are derived 
from Prakrit and Sanskrit. The word 
‘prakrit’ is derived from a word meaning 
‘natural’. The prakrit languages were 
languages in daily use of the people. 
They can be divided into four groups, 
namely, the Paishachi, Shauraseni, 
Magadhi and Maharashtri languages. 
Marathi developed from Maharashtri. 
In this process of the development of 
modern languages like Marathi from the 
prakrit languages, their original forms 
changed. They are called ‘Apabhramsha 
languages’. Modern languages have 
developed from Apabhramsha languages.
48
Do you know ?
49
Arsha and classical epics : 
‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are the 
two ‘Arsha’ epics of ancient India. ‘Arsha’ 
means composed by rishis or sages. The 
‘Ramayana’ was composed by the rishi 
‘Valmiki’. The main character of 
Ramayana is Shriram. ‘Mahabharata’ has 
been composed by the Sage Vyas. Its main 
theme is the war between the Kauravas 
and Pandavas. It also tells us about Lord 
Krishna’s life. The Mahabharata provides 
a comprehensive picture of the various 
human sentiments and  emotions and their 
consequences.
Sometimes, there is such a period in 
the history of language, literature and art, 
that its glory remains undiminished even 
later on. The art, literature, etc. produced 
in such a period is said to be ‘classical’. 
‘Raghuvansha’ and  ‘Kumarsambhava’ by 
Kalidasa, ‘Kiratarjuniya’ by Bharavi and 
‘Shishupalvadh’ by Magha are well-known 
compositions of the ancient period written 
in classical Sanskrit.  
Theatre : India has an ancient tradition 
of telling a story through songs, music and 
dance. These arts have been discussed in 
great detail in the ‘Natyashastra’ by 
Bharatmuni. When these arts are presented 
Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra in 
which he discusses at length, what 
constitutes on excellent administrative 
system. 
Treatises on Grammar : 
‘Ashtadhyayi’ written by the grammarian 
Panini is considered to be the standard 
work on Sanskrit grammar. Patanjali wrote 
‘Mahabhashya’. It explains the principles 
given in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’.
Arthashastra : This is a work by 
Kautilya. It consists of detailed 
discussions of administrative matters 
such as the duties of a king, criteria 
for selecting a minister, systems of 
defence, types of forts, the formation 
of an army, plans for espionage, 
organization of the treasury and other 
offices, judicial system, investigation 
of theft, types of punishment, etc.
Do you know ?
Adi Shankaracharya
text of the Hindus, is a part of the 
Mahabharata. The Bhagvad Gita tells us 
that each one of us should do our duty 
without expecting rewards. It also says 
that the path of devotion to God is open 
to all.
Adi Shankaracharya lived during the 
eighth century CE. He emphasised 
knowledge and renunciation. He wrote 
commentaries explaining the ‘Upanishads’, 
‘Brahmasutras’ and the ‘Bhagvad Gita’. 
He established four muths in four directions 
of India at Badrinath, Dwarka, 
Jagannathpuri and Shringeri. 
50
with supporting dialogues, they are known 
as theatre. Among the ancient Sanskrit 
plays, ‘Swapnavasavadutta’ by Bhasa, 
‘Abhijnanshakuntal’ by Kalidasa, etc. are 
famous.
Narrative Literature ? In the ancient
times, storytelling was used to educate 
people through entertainment. Gunadhya’s 
‘Bruhatkatha’ written in a language called 
‘Paishachi’ is well-known. ‘Panchatantra’ 
composed by Pandit Vishnusharma is an 
excellent example of narrative literature. 
This text has been translated into many 
languages. Similarly, Baudhha Jataka 
tales are also very well-known.
10.3  Science
Medicine : Indian medical science is 
known as ‘Ayurveda’. It has a very old 
tradition. It seeks to understand the 
symptoms of an illness, its diagnosis and 
treatment. Also, much thought has been 
given to prevention of illness. Jeevaka was 
a well known vaidya, at the court of King 
Bimbisara. The ‘Charaka Samhita’ contains 
detailed information about clinical diagnosis 
and pharmacy. It was written by Charak. 
The famous surgeon Sushruta has discussed 
the diagnosis of different ailments and their 
remedies in his treatise the ‘Sushruta 
Samhita’. The importance of this text is 
that it discusses the different causes leading 
to injuries, fractures, their types and the 
various types of surgeries required for them. 
The text was translated into the Arabic 
language and was called ‘Kitaab-e-susud’. 
Vagbhata also wrote many books on 
medical science.  The ‘Ashtang-sangraha’ 
and ‘Ashtang-hridayasamhita’ are the most 
important of them. The Bauddha bhikkhu, 
Siddha Nagarjuna in his book 
‘Rasaratnakara’ describes various 
chemicals and metals. 
Mathematics and Astronomy : The 
ancient Indians had studied Mathematics 
and Astronomy at great depth. Indians 
were the first to use the numerals 1 to 9 
and zero. They invented the concept of 
decimal system in which the value of a 
digit changes according to its place ekam, 
daham, (units, tens) etc. The scientist 
Aryabhata wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’, 
which included many formulae for 
mathematical operations. Aryabhata was 
also an astronomer. He stated that the 
earth revolves around the sun. Varahmihir 
wrote the famous text ‘Panchasidhantika’ 
in the sixth century AD. This text discusses 
principles of Indian astronomy along with 
the principles of astronomy from the Greek, 
Roman and Egyptian civilizations. The 
10.2  Life of the people
The literature of ancient India sheds 
light on the way of life of the common 
people of the time. Those were prosperous 
times, due to the flourishing internal as 
well as foreign trade. The society was 
divided into different castes. There were 
organizations of traders as well as artisans. 
These organizations were called shrenis. 
Trade was carried out by sea as well as 
land routes. Indian goods like fine textiles, 
ivory, precious stones, spices, beautifully 
made earthern pottery were in great 
demand in foreign countries. The main 
crops were rice, wheat, barley and lentil 
(masoor). The diet of the people included 
food items made from these besides meat, 
fish, milk, ghee and fruits. The people 
mostly wore cotton garments, though silk 
and woollen garments were also worn. 
Their clothes resembled today’s dhoti, 
uparane, mundase, saree, etc. The concept 
of stitching clothes was introduced in India 
during the Kushana period. 
Choose a tale from the Panchatantra. 
Write a skit based on it and enact it.
Try this.
51
literature, Buddhist philosophy, economics, 
logic, etc.
Varanasi : The river Ganga has two 
tributaries  - Varana and Asi. The city 
located between them came to be called 
Varanasi. Since ancient times, it has had 
centres which provided education in the 
areas of Vedic as well as Jain and Buddhist 
philosophy. 
Valabhi : Valabhi was an ancient city 
in Saurashtra, Gujarat. From the fifth to 
the eighth century CE, it was an important 
centre of Jain and Buddhist philosophy. 
Yuan Chwang and Itsing, the Chinese 
Bauddha bhikkhus had visited Valabhi.
Nalanda University : The remains of 
the ancient Nalanda University can be 
found near today’s Patna city in Bihar. 
Emperor Harshavardhan made generous 
donations to this university. According to 
the descriptions of Yuan Chwang and 
Itsing, Nalanda University could 
accommodate thousands of students. The 
library stocked thousands of books. 
Students seeking admission to the university 
had to appear for an examination at the 
entrance gate.
The seal of the Nalanda Mahavihara
texts of the mathematician Brahmagupta 
who lived in the seventh century CE, were 
translated into the Arabic language.
Vikramshila University : This 
university was located near today’s 
Bhagalpur in Bihar. It was established by 
a king named Dharmapal in the eighth 
century CE. It had six viharas, each having 
its own separate entrance.
Kanad : Kanad wrote the book 
called ‘Vaisheshik Darshan’. It mainly 
discusses anu and paramanu. According 
to Kanad, the universe is full of 
innumerable objects. These objects are 
nothing but the different forms of ‘anu’s. 
These forms might change but the anu 
remains unchanged.
Do you know ?
10.4  Centres of education
There were many famous centres of 
education in ancient India. Students from 
other countries also came there for their 
studies.
Takshashila University : Takshashila 
was an important city on the ancient Indian 
trade route. Today, it is in Pakistan. 
Archaeological evidence found there 
suggests that the city was established in 
the sixth century BCE Jeevaka, a 
contemporary of Gautama Buddha and a 
famous vaidya, had studied at Takshashila 
University. By the fourth century BCE, the 
fame of the university had spread far and 
wide. Chandragupta Maurya the founder 
of the Maurya Empire was educated at this 
university. The grammarian Panini and the 
vaidya Charaka were also students of 
Takshashila University. The Greek 
historians who accompanied Alexander 
have also given a description of the 
university. They have stated that such  
a university did not exist anywhere in 
Greece. The famous Chinese Bauddha 
bhikkhu, Fa Hien who came to India 
around 400 CE also visited the Takshashila 
University. The university provided 
education in various subjects such as Vedic 
52
Kanchi : During the reign of the 
Pallava dynasty (sixth century CE), Kanchi 
in Tamil Nadu, emerged as an important 
centre of education. It was a centre for the 
teaching and learning of Vedic, Jain and 
Buddhist texts.
10.5  Art and architecture 
Indian architecture reached its peak 
during the Maurya and the Gupta periods. 
The stone pillars erected by Emperor 
Ashoka at various places are excellent 
examples of Indian sculpture. The stupa at 
Sanchi and cave sculptures at Udayagiri, 
Khandagiri, Karla, Nashik, Ajanta, Ellora, 
etc. show that the same tradition advanced 
even further. The art of making images 
was developed during the Gupta period. 
Temple architecture developed during the 
reigns of the Chalukya and Pallava 
dynasties in South India. The temples of 
Mahabalipuram are a testimony to this 
architecture. The art of making bronze 
The stupa at Sanchi
images of deities emerged during the 
period of the Pallavas. The iron pillar at 
Mehrauli near Delhi is evidence of the 
advanced knowledge of metallurgy of the 
ancient Indians. 
Thus, it is clear that ancient Indian 
culture was very prosperous and advanced. 
In the next chapter, we will study India’s 
contact with other civilisations and its  
far-reaching impact.
Bronze statue of Natraj
The iron pillar at Mehrauli