Textbook: Historiography - Development in the West | History and Political Science Class 10 (Maharashtra Board) PDF Download

 Page 1


1
1. Historiography : Development in the West 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
1.2 Modern Historiography 
1.3 Development of Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography
1.4 Notable Scholars   
Historical research, writing and studies 
are carried out with an objective of 
understanding the chronology of the past 
events and their interconnections. This is 
a continuous process.  
In the physical and natural sciences 
the empirical method (laboratory method 
of experiments and observation) is used 
to verify the available knowledge. This 
method allows formulating laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space. Those laws can be tested and 
proved repeatedly.  
In historical research it may not be 
possible to use the method of laboratory 
experiments and observation. This is so 
because we were not present in the 
historical time and space and the historical 
events cannot be recreated. Also in history 
it is not possible to formulate laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space.  
To begin, we need an expert who 
knows the language and script of a 
historical document in order to read it 
and understand its meaning. Also, the 
experts can examine the authenticity of 
the document by using criteria such as 
lettering style, author’s style of writing, 
manufacturing date and type of paper, 
stamps of authority, etc.  Such a document 
is further scrutinised by a historian with 
the help of relevant historical references.           
Writing of 
Historical 
narrative
Critically examining 
of various sources of 
history
Examining relevant 
references of the available 
historical information 
Collecting historical information, 
highlighting the processes that lead 
to historical transitions, carrying 
out comparative analysis
Understanding the references 
regarding time and space of the 
given historical events and also 
various conceptual frameworks 
used in historical research method
Formulating relevant 
questions in view of the 
historical references 
Formulating 
hypotheses
Historical Research Method
Page 2


1
1. Historiography : Development in the West 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
1.2 Modern Historiography 
1.3 Development of Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography
1.4 Notable Scholars   
Historical research, writing and studies 
are carried out with an objective of 
understanding the chronology of the past 
events and their interconnections. This is 
a continuous process.  
In the physical and natural sciences 
the empirical method (laboratory method 
of experiments and observation) is used 
to verify the available knowledge. This 
method allows formulating laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space. Those laws can be tested and 
proved repeatedly.  
In historical research it may not be 
possible to use the method of laboratory 
experiments and observation. This is so 
because we were not present in the 
historical time and space and the historical 
events cannot be recreated. Also in history 
it is not possible to formulate laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space.  
To begin, we need an expert who 
knows the language and script of a 
historical document in order to read it 
and understand its meaning. Also, the 
experts can examine the authenticity of 
the document by using criteria such as 
lettering style, author’s style of writing, 
manufacturing date and type of paper, 
stamps of authority, etc.  Such a document 
is further scrutinised by a historian with 
the help of relevant historical references.           
Writing of 
Historical 
narrative
Critically examining 
of various sources of 
history
Examining relevant 
references of the available 
historical information 
Collecting historical information, 
highlighting the processes that lead 
to historical transitions, carrying 
out comparative analysis
Understanding the references 
regarding time and space of the 
given historical events and also 
various conceptual frameworks 
used in historical research method
Formulating relevant 
questions in view of the 
historical references 
Formulating 
hypotheses
Historical Research Method
2
(1) Its method is based on scientific 
principles. It begins with the formation of 
relevant questions. 
(2) These questions are anthropocentric. 
It means that these questions are about the 
deeds of the members of ancient human 
societies of a particular period. History 
does not suggest any interrelation between 
the Divine and human deeds.  
Methods of various disciplines are 
useful in historical research. For example, 
Archaeology, Archival Science, 
Manuscriptology, Epigraphy (Study of 
inscriptions), Analysis of lettering style, 
Linguistics, Numismatics (Study of coins), 
Genealogy (Study of lineage), etc. 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
We have learnt about the historical 
research method, critically examining the 
historical sources and writing the historical 
narrative. The writing of critical historical 
narrative is known as ‘Historiography’. A 
scholor who writes such a narrative is a 
historian.
The historian cannot include every 
past event in his narrative. The inclusion 
and interpretation of historical events by 
the historian often depends on the 
conceptual framework adopted by him. 
His style of writing is determined by that 
conceptual framework. 
The tradition of writing historical 
narrative, that is historiography, was not 
prevalent in the ancient societies of the 
world. However, that does not mean that 
they were not aware of the historical time 
or were not eager to know about it. 
Ancient people also felt the need of 
passing on the stories of the life and 
valour of the ancestors to the next 
generation. Ancient communities all over 
the world used various means like cave 
paintings, story-telling, singing songs and 
ballads, etc. for this purpose.  These 
traditional means are looked upon as the 
sources of history in the modern 
historiography.          
1.2 Modern Historiography
Four main characteristics of modern 
historiography : 
Do you know ?
The above picture shows a 
fragment of the earliest inscription. 
A forward marching file of soldiers 
holding shields and spears is seen 
here. The General is in the front. 
The tradition of recording 
historical event can be traced back 
to Sumer civilisation in 
Mesopotamia. Names of Sumerian 
kings and the stories of battles 
fought by them have been preserved 
in various inscriptions. The earliest 
inscription shown above, dates back 
to 4500 B.C.E.  It records a battle 
fought between two kingdoms. It is 
now displayed at the Louvre 
museum in France. 
The earliest inscription in the
Louvre museum
Page 3


1
1. Historiography : Development in the West 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
1.2 Modern Historiography 
1.3 Development of Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography
1.4 Notable Scholars   
Historical research, writing and studies 
are carried out with an objective of 
understanding the chronology of the past 
events and their interconnections. This is 
a continuous process.  
In the physical and natural sciences 
the empirical method (laboratory method 
of experiments and observation) is used 
to verify the available knowledge. This 
method allows formulating laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space. Those laws can be tested and 
proved repeatedly.  
In historical research it may not be 
possible to use the method of laboratory 
experiments and observation. This is so 
because we were not present in the 
historical time and space and the historical 
events cannot be recreated. Also in history 
it is not possible to formulate laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space.  
To begin, we need an expert who 
knows the language and script of a 
historical document in order to read it 
and understand its meaning. Also, the 
experts can examine the authenticity of 
the document by using criteria such as 
lettering style, author’s style of writing, 
manufacturing date and type of paper, 
stamps of authority, etc.  Such a document 
is further scrutinised by a historian with 
the help of relevant historical references.           
Writing of 
Historical 
narrative
Critically examining 
of various sources of 
history
Examining relevant 
references of the available 
historical information 
Collecting historical information, 
highlighting the processes that lead 
to historical transitions, carrying 
out comparative analysis
Understanding the references 
regarding time and space of the 
given historical events and also 
various conceptual frameworks 
used in historical research method
Formulating relevant 
questions in view of the 
historical references 
Formulating 
hypotheses
Historical Research Method
2
(1) Its method is based on scientific 
principles. It begins with the formation of 
relevant questions. 
(2) These questions are anthropocentric. 
It means that these questions are about the 
deeds of the members of ancient human 
societies of a particular period. History 
does not suggest any interrelation between 
the Divine and human deeds.  
Methods of various disciplines are 
useful in historical research. For example, 
Archaeology, Archival Science, 
Manuscriptology, Epigraphy (Study of 
inscriptions), Analysis of lettering style, 
Linguistics, Numismatics (Study of coins), 
Genealogy (Study of lineage), etc. 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
We have learnt about the historical 
research method, critically examining the 
historical sources and writing the historical 
narrative. The writing of critical historical 
narrative is known as ‘Historiography’. A 
scholor who writes such a narrative is a 
historian.
The historian cannot include every 
past event in his narrative. The inclusion 
and interpretation of historical events by 
the historian often depends on the 
conceptual framework adopted by him. 
His style of writing is determined by that 
conceptual framework. 
The tradition of writing historical 
narrative, that is historiography, was not 
prevalent in the ancient societies of the 
world. However, that does not mean that 
they were not aware of the historical time 
or were not eager to know about it. 
Ancient people also felt the need of 
passing on the stories of the life and 
valour of the ancestors to the next 
generation. Ancient communities all over 
the world used various means like cave 
paintings, story-telling, singing songs and 
ballads, etc. for this purpose.  These 
traditional means are looked upon as the 
sources of history in the modern 
historiography.          
1.2 Modern Historiography
Four main characteristics of modern 
historiography : 
Do you know ?
The above picture shows a 
fragment of the earliest inscription. 
A forward marching file of soldiers 
holding shields and spears is seen 
here. The General is in the front. 
The tradition of recording 
historical event can be traced back 
to Sumer civilisation in 
Mesopotamia. Names of Sumerian 
kings and the stories of battles 
fought by them have been preserved 
in various inscriptions. The earliest 
inscription shown above, dates back 
to 4500 B.C.E.  It records a battle 
fought between two kingdoms. It is 
now displayed at the Louvre 
museum in France. 
The earliest inscription in the
Louvre museum
3
(3) Answers to these questions are 
supported by reliable evidence. 
(4) History presents a graph of 
mankind’s journey with the help of past 
human deeds. 
It is said that the modern 
historiography with above characteristics 
has its roots in the ancient Greek historical 
writings. ‘History’ is originally a Greek 
term. Herodotus, the Greek historian of 
the fifth century B.C.E. used it first for 
his book entitled, ‘The Histories’. 
1.3 Development of  Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography 
Till the eighteenth century C.E. 
Europe had achieved a remarkable 
progress in the fields of Philosophy and 
Science. Scholars by then had come to 
believe in the possibility of studying the 
social and historical truths by applying 
scientific methods. Now the philosophical 
discussions focused more and more on the 
objectivity in history and historiography. 
 Prior to the eighteenth century all 
European universities were interested only 
in the philosophical discourses revolving 
around Divine phenomena. However, 
gradually this scenario began to change. 
In 1737 C.E. the Gottingen University 
was founded in Germany. This university 
for the first time had an independent 
department of history. Later, other German 
universities also became centres of 
historical studies. 
1.4 Notable Scholars
The contributions of many scholars 
are important in the development of 
historiography. Let us have a look at the 
contributions of the few notable scholars.  
René Descartes 
(1596-1650) : René 
Descartes was the 
foremost among 
scholars who insisted 
on verifying the 
reliability of 
historical documents 
by critically 
examining them.  Among the rules 
given by him in his book, ‘Discourse on 
the method’, the following is supposed to 
have a great impact on the scientific 
method of research : Never to accept 
anything for true till all grounds of doubt 
are excluded. 
Voltaire (1694-1778) : Voltaire’s 
original name was François-Marie Arouet. 
He was French. He 
opined that along 
with objective truth 
and chronology of 
historical events 
considering social 
traditions, trade, 
economy, agriculture, 
etc. was also equally 
important in historiography. It gave rise 
to the thought that understanding all 
aspects of human life is important for 
history writing. Thus, it is said that 
Voltaire was the founder of modern 
historiography. 
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 
(1770-1831) : Hegel was a German 
philosopher. He insisted that the historical 
reality should be presented in a logical 
manner.  To him the timeline of historical 
events was indicative of progress. He also 
thought that the presentation of history is 
bound to change over time as new 
René Descartes
Voltaire
Page 4


1
1. Historiography : Development in the West 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
1.2 Modern Historiography 
1.3 Development of Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography
1.4 Notable Scholars   
Historical research, writing and studies 
are carried out with an objective of 
understanding the chronology of the past 
events and their interconnections. This is 
a continuous process.  
In the physical and natural sciences 
the empirical method (laboratory method 
of experiments and observation) is used 
to verify the available knowledge. This 
method allows formulating laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space. Those laws can be tested and 
proved repeatedly.  
In historical research it may not be 
possible to use the method of laboratory 
experiments and observation. This is so 
because we were not present in the 
historical time and space and the historical 
events cannot be recreated. Also in history 
it is not possible to formulate laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space.  
To begin, we need an expert who 
knows the language and script of a 
historical document in order to read it 
and understand its meaning. Also, the 
experts can examine the authenticity of 
the document by using criteria such as 
lettering style, author’s style of writing, 
manufacturing date and type of paper, 
stamps of authority, etc.  Such a document 
is further scrutinised by a historian with 
the help of relevant historical references.           
Writing of 
Historical 
narrative
Critically examining 
of various sources of 
history
Examining relevant 
references of the available 
historical information 
Collecting historical information, 
highlighting the processes that lead 
to historical transitions, carrying 
out comparative analysis
Understanding the references 
regarding time and space of the 
given historical events and also 
various conceptual frameworks 
used in historical research method
Formulating relevant 
questions in view of the 
historical references 
Formulating 
hypotheses
Historical Research Method
2
(1) Its method is based on scientific 
principles. It begins with the formation of 
relevant questions. 
(2) These questions are anthropocentric. 
It means that these questions are about the 
deeds of the members of ancient human 
societies of a particular period. History 
does not suggest any interrelation between 
the Divine and human deeds.  
Methods of various disciplines are 
useful in historical research. For example, 
Archaeology, Archival Science, 
Manuscriptology, Epigraphy (Study of 
inscriptions), Analysis of lettering style, 
Linguistics, Numismatics (Study of coins), 
Genealogy (Study of lineage), etc. 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
We have learnt about the historical 
research method, critically examining the 
historical sources and writing the historical 
narrative. The writing of critical historical 
narrative is known as ‘Historiography’. A 
scholor who writes such a narrative is a 
historian.
The historian cannot include every 
past event in his narrative. The inclusion 
and interpretation of historical events by 
the historian often depends on the 
conceptual framework adopted by him. 
His style of writing is determined by that 
conceptual framework. 
The tradition of writing historical 
narrative, that is historiography, was not 
prevalent in the ancient societies of the 
world. However, that does not mean that 
they were not aware of the historical time 
or were not eager to know about it. 
Ancient people also felt the need of 
passing on the stories of the life and 
valour of the ancestors to the next 
generation. Ancient communities all over 
the world used various means like cave 
paintings, story-telling, singing songs and 
ballads, etc. for this purpose.  These 
traditional means are looked upon as the 
sources of history in the modern 
historiography.          
1.2 Modern Historiography
Four main characteristics of modern 
historiography : 
Do you know ?
The above picture shows a 
fragment of the earliest inscription. 
A forward marching file of soldiers 
holding shields and spears is seen 
here. The General is in the front. 
The tradition of recording 
historical event can be traced back 
to Sumer civilisation in 
Mesopotamia. Names of Sumerian 
kings and the stories of battles 
fought by them have been preserved 
in various inscriptions. The earliest 
inscription shown above, dates back 
to 4500 B.C.E.  It records a battle 
fought between two kingdoms. It is 
now displayed at the Louvre 
museum in France. 
The earliest inscription in the
Louvre museum
3
(3) Answers to these questions are 
supported by reliable evidence. 
(4) History presents a graph of 
mankind’s journey with the help of past 
human deeds. 
It is said that the modern 
historiography with above characteristics 
has its roots in the ancient Greek historical 
writings. ‘History’ is originally a Greek 
term. Herodotus, the Greek historian of 
the fifth century B.C.E. used it first for 
his book entitled, ‘The Histories’. 
1.3 Development of  Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography 
Till the eighteenth century C.E. 
Europe had achieved a remarkable 
progress in the fields of Philosophy and 
Science. Scholars by then had come to 
believe in the possibility of studying the 
social and historical truths by applying 
scientific methods. Now the philosophical 
discussions focused more and more on the 
objectivity in history and historiography. 
 Prior to the eighteenth century all 
European universities were interested only 
in the philosophical discourses revolving 
around Divine phenomena. However, 
gradually this scenario began to change. 
In 1737 C.E. the Gottingen University 
was founded in Germany. This university 
for the first time had an independent 
department of history. Later, other German 
universities also became centres of 
historical studies. 
1.4 Notable Scholars
The contributions of many scholars 
are important in the development of 
historiography. Let us have a look at the 
contributions of the few notable scholars.  
René Descartes 
(1596-1650) : René 
Descartes was the 
foremost among 
scholars who insisted 
on verifying the 
reliability of 
historical documents 
by critically 
examining them.  Among the rules 
given by him in his book, ‘Discourse on 
the method’, the following is supposed to 
have a great impact on the scientific 
method of research : Never to accept 
anything for true till all grounds of doubt 
are excluded. 
Voltaire (1694-1778) : Voltaire’s 
original name was François-Marie Arouet. 
He was French. He 
opined that along 
with objective truth 
and chronology of 
historical events 
considering social 
traditions, trade, 
economy, agriculture, 
etc. was also equally 
important in historiography. It gave rise 
to the thought that understanding all 
aspects of human life is important for 
history writing. Thus, it is said that 
Voltaire was the founder of modern 
historiography. 
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 
(1770-1831) : Hegel was a German 
philosopher. He insisted that the historical 
reality should be presented in a logical 
manner.  To him the timeline of historical 
events was indicative of progress. He also 
thought that the presentation of history is 
bound to change over time as new 
René Descartes
Voltaire
4
evidence would 
come forth.  With 
Hegel’s philosophy 
many scholars were 
convinced that 
historical methods 
were not of lesser 
quality though they 
differed from 
scientific methods. 
The collection of his 
lectures and articles 
is published in a book, entitled 
‘Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences’. 
His book, ‘Reason in History’, is well 
known.  
Georg Wilhelm 
Friedrich Hegel 
It is good to know this :
According to Hegel, grasping 
the meaning of any event happens 
in terms of two direct opposites. 
Human mind cannot understand the 
true nature of that event, without 
understanding the opposites, for 
example, True-False, Good-Bad, 
etc. In order to understand the true 
nature of a thing one needs to know 
both true and false, similarly good 
and bad. This method of analysis 
which is based on opposites is 
known as ‘Dialectics’. In this 
method a theory is proposed at the 
beginning, which is called, ‘Thesis’. 
Then another theory is proposed, 
which is contrary to the thesis. It is 
called, ‘Antithesis’. After a thorough 
logical discussion of the both a new 
thesis is proposed which includes 
the gist of both, the thesis and the 
antithesis. This process of arriving 
at the new thesis is called, 
‘Synthesis’.
Leopold von Ranké (1795-1886) :  
Historiography of the nineteenth century 
was greatly influenced by the thoughts of 
Leopold Von Ranke of Berlin University. 
He spoke about the critical method of 
historical research. He put emphasis on 
the utmost importance of information 
gathered through 
original documents. 
He also stated that 
all types of 
documents associated 
with a historical 
event need to be 
examined with 
greatest care. He 
believed that with 
this method it was 
possible to reach the historical truth. He 
criticised imaginative narration of history. 
Collection of his articles is published in 
two books, entitled ‘The Theory and 
Practice of History’ and ‘The Secret of 
World History’. 
 Karl Marx  (1818-1883) : In the 
latter half of the nineteenth century a new 
school of thought arose keeping in view 
the new thesis formulated by Karl Marx. 
According to Karl Marx, history was not 
about abstract ideas; it was about living 
people. Human relationships are shaped 
by the fundamental needs of people and 
the ownership as well as nature of 
prevalent means 
of production to 
meet those needs. 
The accessibility 
of these means to 
different strata of 
the society may 
not be equal. This 
inequality causes 
Karl Marx
Leopold von Ranké
Page 5


1
1. Historiography : Development in the West 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
1.2 Modern Historiography 
1.3 Development of Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography
1.4 Notable Scholars   
Historical research, writing and studies 
are carried out with an objective of 
understanding the chronology of the past 
events and their interconnections. This is 
a continuous process.  
In the physical and natural sciences 
the empirical method (laboratory method 
of experiments and observation) is used 
to verify the available knowledge. This 
method allows formulating laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space. Those laws can be tested and 
proved repeatedly.  
In historical research it may not be 
possible to use the method of laboratory 
experiments and observation. This is so 
because we were not present in the 
historical time and space and the historical 
events cannot be recreated. Also in history 
it is not possible to formulate laws that 
remain true irrespective of the time and 
space.  
To begin, we need an expert who 
knows the language and script of a 
historical document in order to read it 
and understand its meaning. Also, the 
experts can examine the authenticity of 
the document by using criteria such as 
lettering style, author’s style of writing, 
manufacturing date and type of paper, 
stamps of authority, etc.  Such a document 
is further scrutinised by a historian with 
the help of relevant historical references.           
Writing of 
Historical 
narrative
Critically examining 
of various sources of 
history
Examining relevant 
references of the available 
historical information 
Collecting historical information, 
highlighting the processes that lead 
to historical transitions, carrying 
out comparative analysis
Understanding the references 
regarding time and space of the 
given historical events and also 
various conceptual frameworks 
used in historical research method
Formulating relevant 
questions in view of the 
historical references 
Formulating 
hypotheses
Historical Research Method
2
(1) Its method is based on scientific 
principles. It begins with the formation of 
relevant questions. 
(2) These questions are anthropocentric. 
It means that these questions are about the 
deeds of the members of ancient human 
societies of a particular period. History 
does not suggest any interrelation between 
the Divine and human deeds.  
Methods of various disciplines are 
useful in historical research. For example, 
Archaeology, Archival Science, 
Manuscriptology, Epigraphy (Study of 
inscriptions), Analysis of lettering style, 
Linguistics, Numismatics (Study of coins), 
Genealogy (Study of lineage), etc. 
1.1 Tradition of Historiography 
We have learnt about the historical 
research method, critically examining the 
historical sources and writing the historical 
narrative. The writing of critical historical 
narrative is known as ‘Historiography’. A 
scholor who writes such a narrative is a 
historian.
The historian cannot include every 
past event in his narrative. The inclusion 
and interpretation of historical events by 
the historian often depends on the 
conceptual framework adopted by him. 
His style of writing is determined by that 
conceptual framework. 
The tradition of writing historical 
narrative, that is historiography, was not 
prevalent in the ancient societies of the 
world. However, that does not mean that 
they were not aware of the historical time 
or were not eager to know about it. 
Ancient people also felt the need of 
passing on the stories of the life and 
valour of the ancestors to the next 
generation. Ancient communities all over 
the world used various means like cave 
paintings, story-telling, singing songs and 
ballads, etc. for this purpose.  These 
traditional means are looked upon as the 
sources of history in the modern 
historiography.          
1.2 Modern Historiography
Four main characteristics of modern 
historiography : 
Do you know ?
The above picture shows a 
fragment of the earliest inscription. 
A forward marching file of soldiers 
holding shields and spears is seen 
here. The General is in the front. 
The tradition of recording 
historical event can be traced back 
to Sumer civilisation in 
Mesopotamia. Names of Sumerian 
kings and the stories of battles 
fought by them have been preserved 
in various inscriptions. The earliest 
inscription shown above, dates back 
to 4500 B.C.E.  It records a battle 
fought between two kingdoms. It is 
now displayed at the Louvre 
museum in France. 
The earliest inscription in the
Louvre museum
3
(3) Answers to these questions are 
supported by reliable evidence. 
(4) History presents a graph of 
mankind’s journey with the help of past 
human deeds. 
It is said that the modern 
historiography with above characteristics 
has its roots in the ancient Greek historical 
writings. ‘History’ is originally a Greek 
term. Herodotus, the Greek historian of 
the fifth century B.C.E. used it first for 
his book entitled, ‘The Histories’. 
1.3 Development of  Scientific 
Perspective in Europe and 
Historiography 
Till the eighteenth century C.E. 
Europe had achieved a remarkable 
progress in the fields of Philosophy and 
Science. Scholars by then had come to 
believe in the possibility of studying the 
social and historical truths by applying 
scientific methods. Now the philosophical 
discussions focused more and more on the 
objectivity in history and historiography. 
 Prior to the eighteenth century all 
European universities were interested only 
in the philosophical discourses revolving 
around Divine phenomena. However, 
gradually this scenario began to change. 
In 1737 C.E. the Gottingen University 
was founded in Germany. This university 
for the first time had an independent 
department of history. Later, other German 
universities also became centres of 
historical studies. 
1.4 Notable Scholars
The contributions of many scholars 
are important in the development of 
historiography. Let us have a look at the 
contributions of the few notable scholars.  
René Descartes 
(1596-1650) : René 
Descartes was the 
foremost among 
scholars who insisted 
on verifying the 
reliability of 
historical documents 
by critically 
examining them.  Among the rules 
given by him in his book, ‘Discourse on 
the method’, the following is supposed to 
have a great impact on the scientific 
method of research : Never to accept 
anything for true till all grounds of doubt 
are excluded. 
Voltaire (1694-1778) : Voltaire’s 
original name was François-Marie Arouet. 
He was French. He 
opined that along 
with objective truth 
and chronology of 
historical events 
considering social 
traditions, trade, 
economy, agriculture, 
etc. was also equally 
important in historiography. It gave rise 
to the thought that understanding all 
aspects of human life is important for 
history writing. Thus, it is said that 
Voltaire was the founder of modern 
historiography. 
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 
(1770-1831) : Hegel was a German 
philosopher. He insisted that the historical 
reality should be presented in a logical 
manner.  To him the timeline of historical 
events was indicative of progress. He also 
thought that the presentation of history is 
bound to change over time as new 
René Descartes
Voltaire
4
evidence would 
come forth.  With 
Hegel’s philosophy 
many scholars were 
convinced that 
historical methods 
were not of lesser 
quality though they 
differed from 
scientific methods. 
The collection of his 
lectures and articles 
is published in a book, entitled 
‘Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences’. 
His book, ‘Reason in History’, is well 
known.  
Georg Wilhelm 
Friedrich Hegel 
It is good to know this :
According to Hegel, grasping 
the meaning of any event happens 
in terms of two direct opposites. 
Human mind cannot understand the 
true nature of that event, without 
understanding the opposites, for 
example, True-False, Good-Bad, 
etc. In order to understand the true 
nature of a thing one needs to know 
both true and false, similarly good 
and bad. This method of analysis 
which is based on opposites is 
known as ‘Dialectics’. In this 
method a theory is proposed at the 
beginning, which is called, ‘Thesis’. 
Then another theory is proposed, 
which is contrary to the thesis. It is 
called, ‘Antithesis’. After a thorough 
logical discussion of the both a new 
thesis is proposed which includes 
the gist of both, the thesis and the 
antithesis. This process of arriving 
at the new thesis is called, 
‘Synthesis’.
Leopold von Ranké (1795-1886) :  
Historiography of the nineteenth century 
was greatly influenced by the thoughts of 
Leopold Von Ranke of Berlin University. 
He spoke about the critical method of 
historical research. He put emphasis on 
the utmost importance of information 
gathered through 
original documents. 
He also stated that 
all types of 
documents associated 
with a historical 
event need to be 
examined with 
greatest care. He 
believed that with 
this method it was 
possible to reach the historical truth. He 
criticised imaginative narration of history. 
Collection of his articles is published in 
two books, entitled ‘The Theory and 
Practice of History’ and ‘The Secret of 
World History’. 
 Karl Marx  (1818-1883) : In the 
latter half of the nineteenth century a new 
school of thought arose keeping in view 
the new thesis formulated by Karl Marx. 
According to Karl Marx, history was not 
about abstract ideas; it was about living 
people. Human relationships are shaped 
by the fundamental needs of people and 
the ownership as well as nature of 
prevalent means 
of production to 
meet those needs. 
The accessibility 
of these means to 
different strata of 
the society may 
not be equal. This 
inequality causes 
Karl Marx
Leopold von Ranké
5
a division of the society into classes, 
leading to class struggle. According to 
Marx, human history is the history of 
class struggle, as the class that owns the 
means of production economically exploits 
the rest of the classes. ‘Das Kapital’, a 
treatise written by him is the most referred 
book all over the world. 
Annales School : At the onset of the 
twentieth century a new school of 
historiography arose in France, which is 
known as ‘Annales School’.  Annales 
school gave a new direction to history 
writing. It was recognised now that history 
is not only about the political events, 
kings, great leaders and accordingly 
politics, diplomacy and wars but also 
about the climate, local people, agriculture, 
trade, technology, means of 
communication, social divisions and their 
collective psychology, etc. in the historical 
times. The Annales School was started by 
French historians. 
Feminist Historiography 
Feminist historiography means the 
restructuring of the history from the 
perspective of women. The writings of 
Simone de Beauvoir, helped in establishing 
the fundamentals of feminism. She was 
French. The feminist historiography 
emphasised not only on the inclusion of 
women in history but also on the rethinking 
of the male dominated perspective of 
history. It drove historical research to 
focus in depth on various aspects of 
women’s life such as their employment, 
their role in trade union, institutions 
working for their cause, their family life, 
etc.  In the historical writings after 1990 
women were portrayed as an independent 
social class. 
Michel Foucault (1926-1984) : The 
French historian of the twentieth century, 
Michel Foucault brought forth a new 
concept in historiography. He, in his book, 
‘Archaeology of Knowledge’, argued that 
the prevailing practice of arranging 
historical events in a chronological order 
is not right. He 
drew attention to 
the fact that 
archaeology does 
not strive to 
reach the ultimate 
historical truth 
but attempts to 
explain various 
transitions in the 
past. Foucault felt 
that explaining the transitions in history 
is more important. He called his method, 
‘the archaeology of knowledge’. 
Foucault subjected the so far 
unacknowledged areas by historians such 
as psychological disorders, science of 
medicine, prison administration, etc. to 
historical analysis.  
 Thus, the scope of historiography 
kept continuously expanding. Writing of 
histories of various subjects like literature, 
architecture, sculpture, drawing and 
painting, music, dance, drama, films and 
television, etc. came into practice.   
Michel Foucault