NCERT Textbook: The Making of Regional Cultures | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


79
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
Find out how 
many states have 
been created in 
the last 10 years. 
Is each of these 
states a region? 
THE MAKING OF 
REGIONAL CULTURES
O
ne of the commonest ways of describing people  
is in terms of the language they speak. When we 
refer to a person as a Tamil or an Oriya, this usually 
means that he or she speaks Tamil or Oriya and lives 
in Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend to associate 
each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, 
poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we take 
these identities for granted and assume that they have 
existed from time immemorial. However, the frontiers 
separating regions have evolved over time (and in 
fact are still changing). Also, what we understand 
as regional cultures today are often the product of 
complex processes of intermixing of local traditions 
with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. As 
regions, others seem to be similar across regions, and 
yet others derive from older practices in a particular 
area, but take a new form in other regions. 
The Cheras and the Development               
of Malayalam 
Let us begin by looking at an example of the 
connection between language and region. The Chera 
kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in 
the ninth century in the south-western part of the 
peninsula, part of the present-day Kerala. It is likely 
that Malayalam was spoken in this area. The rulers 
introduced the Malayalam language and script in their 
inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest examples 
 
the subcontinent. 
?
Page 2


79
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
Find out how 
many states have 
been created in 
the last 10 years. 
Is each of these 
states a region? 
THE MAKING OF 
REGIONAL CULTURES
O
ne of the commonest ways of describing people  
is in terms of the language they speak. When we 
refer to a person as a Tamil or an Oriya, this usually 
means that he or she speaks Tamil or Oriya and lives 
in Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend to associate 
each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, 
poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we take 
these identities for granted and assume that they have 
existed from time immemorial. However, the frontiers 
separating regions have evolved over time (and in 
fact are still changing). Also, what we understand 
as regional cultures today are often the product of 
complex processes of intermixing of local traditions 
with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. As 
regions, others seem to be similar across regions, and 
yet others derive from older practices in a particular 
area, but take a new form in other regions. 
The Cheras and the Development               
of Malayalam 
Let us begin by looking at an example of the 
connection between language and region. The Chera 
kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in 
the ninth century in the south-western part of the 
peninsula, part of the present-day Kerala. It is likely 
that Malayalam was spoken in this area. The rulers 
introduced the Malayalam language and script in their 
inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest examples 
 
the subcontinent. 
?
80
?
Find out when the 
language(s) you 
speak at home 
were first used 
for writing.   
Fig. 1
An early Kerala 
inscription, composed 
in Malayalam.
At the same time, the Cheras also drew upon 
Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala, 
which is traced to this period, borrowed stories 
Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are 
directly indebted to Sanskrit.  Interestingly enough, a 
fourteenth-century text, the dealing with 
grammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam 
– literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the two 
languages, Sanskrit and the regional language.   
Rulers and Religious Traditions:              
The Jagannatha Cult
In other regions, regional cultures grew around 
religious traditions. The best example of this 
process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of 
the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. To 
date, the local tribal people make 
the wooden image of the deity, which 
suggests that the deity was originally 
with Vishnu.
In the twelfth century, one of the 
most important rulers of the Ganga 
dynasty, Anantavarman, decided 
to erect a temple for Purushottama 
Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 
1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated 
his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed 
himself as the “deputy” of the god.
Fig. 2
The icons of 
Balabhadra, 
Subhadra and 
Jagannatha, palm-leaf 
manuscript, Orissa.
Page 3


79
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
Find out how 
many states have 
been created in 
the last 10 years. 
Is each of these 
states a region? 
THE MAKING OF 
REGIONAL CULTURES
O
ne of the commonest ways of describing people  
is in terms of the language they speak. When we 
refer to a person as a Tamil or an Oriya, this usually 
means that he or she speaks Tamil or Oriya and lives 
in Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend to associate 
each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, 
poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we take 
these identities for granted and assume that they have 
existed from time immemorial. However, the frontiers 
separating regions have evolved over time (and in 
fact are still changing). Also, what we understand 
as regional cultures today are often the product of 
complex processes of intermixing of local traditions 
with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. As 
regions, others seem to be similar across regions, and 
yet others derive from older practices in a particular 
area, but take a new form in other regions. 
The Cheras and the Development               
of Malayalam 
Let us begin by looking at an example of the 
connection between language and region. The Chera 
kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in 
the ninth century in the south-western part of the 
peninsula, part of the present-day Kerala. It is likely 
that Malayalam was spoken in this area. The rulers 
introduced the Malayalam language and script in their 
inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest examples 
 
the subcontinent. 
?
80
?
Find out when the 
language(s) you 
speak at home 
were first used 
for writing.   
Fig. 1
An early Kerala 
inscription, composed 
in Malayalam.
At the same time, the Cheras also drew upon 
Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala, 
which is traced to this period, borrowed stories 
Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are 
directly indebted to Sanskrit.  Interestingly enough, a 
fourteenth-century text, the dealing with 
grammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam 
– literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the two 
languages, Sanskrit and the regional language.   
Rulers and Religious Traditions:              
The Jagannatha Cult
In other regions, regional cultures grew around 
religious traditions. The best example of this 
process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of 
the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. To 
date, the local tribal people make 
the wooden image of the deity, which 
suggests that the deity was originally 
with Vishnu.
In the twelfth century, one of the 
most important rulers of the Ganga 
dynasty, Anantavarman, decided 
to erect a temple for Purushottama 
Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 
1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated 
his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed 
himself as the “deputy” of the god.
Fig. 2
The icons of 
Balabhadra, 
Subhadra and 
Jagannatha, palm-leaf 
manuscript, Orissa.
81
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
As the temple gained in 
importance as a centre of 
pilgrimage, its authority in 
social and political matters 
also increased. All those who 
conquered Orissa, such as 
the Mughals, the Marathas 
and the English East India 
Company, attempted to gain 
control over the temple. They felt 
that this would make their rule 
acceptable to the local people.  
The Rajputs and 
Traditions of Heroism
In the nineteenth century, the 
region that constitutes most 
of present-day Rajasthan, 
was called Rajputana by the British. While this may 
suggest that this was an area that was inhabited 
only or mainly by Rajputs, this is only partly true. 
There were (and are) several groups who identify 
themselves as Rajputs in many areas of northern 
and central India. And of course, there are several 
peoples other than Rajputs who live in 
Rajasthan. However, the Rajputs are often 
recognised as contributing to the distinctive  
culture of Rajasthan. 
These cultural traditions were closely linked 
with the ideals and aspirations of rulers. 
From about the eighth century, most of the 
present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by 
various Rajput families. Prithviraj (Chapter 2) 
was one such ruler. These rulers cherished 
the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, 
than face defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes 
were recorded in poems and songs, which 
were recited by specially trained minstrels. 
Fig. 3
Jagannatha temple, 
Puri.
Fig. 4
Prince Raj Singh of 
Bikaner.
Page 4


79
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
Find out how 
many states have 
been created in 
the last 10 years. 
Is each of these 
states a region? 
THE MAKING OF 
REGIONAL CULTURES
O
ne of the commonest ways of describing people  
is in terms of the language they speak. When we 
refer to a person as a Tamil or an Oriya, this usually 
means that he or she speaks Tamil or Oriya and lives 
in Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend to associate 
each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, 
poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we take 
these identities for granted and assume that they have 
existed from time immemorial. However, the frontiers 
separating regions have evolved over time (and in 
fact are still changing). Also, what we understand 
as regional cultures today are often the product of 
complex processes of intermixing of local traditions 
with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. As 
regions, others seem to be similar across regions, and 
yet others derive from older practices in a particular 
area, but take a new form in other regions. 
The Cheras and the Development               
of Malayalam 
Let us begin by looking at an example of the 
connection between language and region. The Chera 
kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in 
the ninth century in the south-western part of the 
peninsula, part of the present-day Kerala. It is likely 
that Malayalam was spoken in this area. The rulers 
introduced the Malayalam language and script in their 
inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest examples 
 
the subcontinent. 
?
80
?
Find out when the 
language(s) you 
speak at home 
were first used 
for writing.   
Fig. 1
An early Kerala 
inscription, composed 
in Malayalam.
At the same time, the Cheras also drew upon 
Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala, 
which is traced to this period, borrowed stories 
Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are 
directly indebted to Sanskrit.  Interestingly enough, a 
fourteenth-century text, the dealing with 
grammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam 
– literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the two 
languages, Sanskrit and the regional language.   
Rulers and Religious Traditions:              
The Jagannatha Cult
In other regions, regional cultures grew around 
religious traditions. The best example of this 
process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of 
the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. To 
date, the local tribal people make 
the wooden image of the deity, which 
suggests that the deity was originally 
with Vishnu.
In the twelfth century, one of the 
most important rulers of the Ganga 
dynasty, Anantavarman, decided 
to erect a temple for Purushottama 
Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 
1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated 
his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed 
himself as the “deputy” of the god.
Fig. 2
The icons of 
Balabhadra, 
Subhadra and 
Jagannatha, palm-leaf 
manuscript, Orissa.
81
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
As the temple gained in 
importance as a centre of 
pilgrimage, its authority in 
social and political matters 
also increased. All those who 
conquered Orissa, such as 
the Mughals, the Marathas 
and the English East India 
Company, attempted to gain 
control over the temple. They felt 
that this would make their rule 
acceptable to the local people.  
The Rajputs and 
Traditions of Heroism
In the nineteenth century, the 
region that constitutes most 
of present-day Rajasthan, 
was called Rajputana by the British. While this may 
suggest that this was an area that was inhabited 
only or mainly by Rajputs, this is only partly true. 
There were (and are) several groups who identify 
themselves as Rajputs in many areas of northern 
and central India. And of course, there are several 
peoples other than Rajputs who live in 
Rajasthan. However, the Rajputs are often 
recognised as contributing to the distinctive  
culture of Rajasthan. 
These cultural traditions were closely linked 
with the ideals and aspirations of rulers. 
From about the eighth century, most of the 
present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by 
various Rajput families. Prithviraj (Chapter 2) 
was one such ruler. These rulers cherished 
the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, 
than face defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes 
were recorded in poems and songs, which 
were recited by specially trained minstrels. 
Fig. 3
Jagannatha temple, 
Puri.
Fig. 4
Prince Raj Singh of 
Bikaner.
82
These preserved the memories of heroes and were 
expected to inspire others to follow their example. 
Ordinary people were also attracted by these stories 
– which often depicted dramatic situations, and a 
range of strong emotions – loyalty, friendship, love, 
valour, anger, etc. 
Did women find a place within these stories? 
Sometimes women are depicted as following their 
heroic husbands in both life and death – there are 
stories about the practice of or the immolation 
of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. So 
those who followed the heroic ideal often had to pay 
for it with their lives. 
Map 1
Regions discussed in 
this chapter.
Page 5


79
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
Find out how 
many states have 
been created in 
the last 10 years. 
Is each of these 
states a region? 
THE MAKING OF 
REGIONAL CULTURES
O
ne of the commonest ways of describing people  
is in terms of the language they speak. When we 
refer to a person as a Tamil or an Oriya, this usually 
means that he or she speaks Tamil or Oriya and lives 
in Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend to associate 
each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, 
poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we take 
these identities for granted and assume that they have 
existed from time immemorial. However, the frontiers 
separating regions have evolved over time (and in 
fact are still changing). Also, what we understand 
as regional cultures today are often the product of 
complex processes of intermixing of local traditions 
with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. As 
regions, others seem to be similar across regions, and 
yet others derive from older practices in a particular 
area, but take a new form in other regions. 
The Cheras and the Development               
of Malayalam 
Let us begin by looking at an example of the 
connection between language and region. The Chera 
kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in 
the ninth century in the south-western part of the 
peninsula, part of the present-day Kerala. It is likely 
that Malayalam was spoken in this area. The rulers 
introduced the Malayalam language and script in their 
inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest examples 
 
the subcontinent. 
?
80
?
Find out when the 
language(s) you 
speak at home 
were first used 
for writing.   
Fig. 1
An early Kerala 
inscription, composed 
in Malayalam.
At the same time, the Cheras also drew upon 
Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala, 
which is traced to this period, borrowed stories 
Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are 
directly indebted to Sanskrit.  Interestingly enough, a 
fourteenth-century text, the dealing with 
grammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam 
– literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the two 
languages, Sanskrit and the regional language.   
Rulers and Religious Traditions:              
The Jagannatha Cult
In other regions, regional cultures grew around 
religious traditions. The best example of this 
process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of 
the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. To 
date, the local tribal people make 
the wooden image of the deity, which 
suggests that the deity was originally 
with Vishnu.
In the twelfth century, one of the 
most important rulers of the Ganga 
dynasty, Anantavarman, decided 
to erect a temple for Purushottama 
Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 
1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated 
his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed 
himself as the “deputy” of the god.
Fig. 2
The icons of 
Balabhadra, 
Subhadra and 
Jagannatha, palm-leaf 
manuscript, Orissa.
81
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
As the temple gained in 
importance as a centre of 
pilgrimage, its authority in 
social and political matters 
also increased. All those who 
conquered Orissa, such as 
the Mughals, the Marathas 
and the English East India 
Company, attempted to gain 
control over the temple. They felt 
that this would make their rule 
acceptable to the local people.  
The Rajputs and 
Traditions of Heroism
In the nineteenth century, the 
region that constitutes most 
of present-day Rajasthan, 
was called Rajputana by the British. While this may 
suggest that this was an area that was inhabited 
only or mainly by Rajputs, this is only partly true. 
There were (and are) several groups who identify 
themselves as Rajputs in many areas of northern 
and central India. And of course, there are several 
peoples other than Rajputs who live in 
Rajasthan. However, the Rajputs are often 
recognised as contributing to the distinctive  
culture of Rajasthan. 
These cultural traditions were closely linked 
with the ideals and aspirations of rulers. 
From about the eighth century, most of the 
present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by 
various Rajput families. Prithviraj (Chapter 2) 
was one such ruler. These rulers cherished 
the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, 
than face defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes 
were recorded in poems and songs, which 
were recited by specially trained minstrels. 
Fig. 3
Jagannatha temple, 
Puri.
Fig. 4
Prince Raj Singh of 
Bikaner.
82
These preserved the memories of heroes and were 
expected to inspire others to follow their example. 
Ordinary people were also attracted by these stories 
– which often depicted dramatic situations, and a 
range of strong emotions – loyalty, friendship, love, 
valour, anger, etc. 
Did women find a place within these stories? 
Sometimes women are depicted as following their 
heroic husbands in both life and death – there are 
stories about the practice of or the immolation 
of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. So 
those who followed the heroic ideal often had to pay 
for it with their lives. 
Map 1
Regions discussed in 
this chapter.
83
THE MAKING OF  
REGIONAL CULTURES
Beyond Regional Frontiers:               
The Story of K a t ha k 
If heroic traditions can be found in different regions in 
different forms, the same is true of dance. Let us look at 
the history of one dance form, Kathak now associated 
with several parts of north India. The term  
is derived from , a word used in Sanskrit and 
other languages for story. The  were originally 
a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who 
embellished their performances with gestures and 
songs. Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of 
the spread of the bhakti movement. The legends of 
Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called r
, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures 
of the  story-tellers.
Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak 
was performed in the court, where it acquired its present 
features and developed into a form of dance with a 
distinctive style. Subsequently, it developed in two 
traditions or : one in the courts of Rajasthan 
(Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow Under the patronage 
of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into 
a major art form. By the third quarter of the nineteenth 
only in these two regions, but in the adjoining areas of 
present-day Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, 
Find out whether 
there are 
traditions of 
heroes/heroines 
in your town or 
village. What 
are the qualities 
associated with 
them? In what 
ways are these 
similar to or 
different from the 
heroic ideals of 
the Rajputs? 
Fig. 5
Dance class, 
Lakshmana temple, 
Khajuraho.
?