Page 1
Overview The Berlin Wall, which had been
built at the height of the Cold
War and was its greatest symbol,
was toppled by the people in
1989. This dramatic event was
followed by an equally dramatic
and historic chain of events that
led to the collapse of the ‘second
world’ and the end of the Cold
War. Germany, divided after the
Second World War, was unified.
One after another, the eight East
European countries that were
part of the Soviet bloc replaced
their communist governments in
response to mass demonstrations.
The Soviet Union stood by as the
Cold War began to end, not by
military means but as a result
of mass actions by ordinary men
and women. Eventually the Soviet
Union itself disintegrated. In this
chapter, we discuss the meaning,
the causes and the consequences
of the disintegration of the ‘second
world’. We also discuss what
happened to that part of the world
after the collapse of communist
regimes and how India relates to
these countries now.
Chapter 1
The End of Bipolarity
The Berlin Wall
symbolised the division
between the capitalist
and the communist
world. Built in 1961
to separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than
150 kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally
broken by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the
unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning of
the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict:
1. People making a tiny hole in the wall
2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement
3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989
Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm,
www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin
3. www.cs.utah.edu
Chapter 1.indd 1 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Page 2
Overview The Berlin Wall, which had been
built at the height of the Cold
War and was its greatest symbol,
was toppled by the people in
1989. This dramatic event was
followed by an equally dramatic
and historic chain of events that
led to the collapse of the ‘second
world’ and the end of the Cold
War. Germany, divided after the
Second World War, was unified.
One after another, the eight East
European countries that were
part of the Soviet bloc replaced
their communist governments in
response to mass demonstrations.
The Soviet Union stood by as the
Cold War began to end, not by
military means but as a result
of mass actions by ordinary men
and women. Eventually the Soviet
Union itself disintegrated. In this
chapter, we discuss the meaning,
the causes and the consequences
of the disintegration of the ‘second
world’. We also discuss what
happened to that part of the world
after the collapse of communist
regimes and how India relates to
these countries now.
Chapter 1
The End of Bipolarity
The Berlin Wall
symbolised the division
between the capitalist
and the communist
world. Built in 1961
to separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than
150 kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally
broken by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the
unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning of
the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict:
1. People making a tiny hole in the wall
2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement
3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989
Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm,
www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin
3. www.cs.utah.edu
Chapter 1.indd 1 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Contemporary World Politics
2
machinery production, and a
transport sector that connected
its remotest areas with efficiency.
It had a domestic consumer
industry that produced everything
from pins to cars, though their
quality did not match that of the
Western capitalist countries. The
Soviet state ensured a minimum
standard of living for all citizens,
and the government subsidised
basic necessities including
health, education, childcare and
other welfare schemes. State
ownership was the dominant
form of ownership: land and
productive assets were owned
and controlled by the Soviet state.
The Soviet system, however,
became very bureaucratic and
authoritarian, making life very
difficult for its citizens. Lack of
democracy and the absence of
freedom of speech stifled people
who often expressed their dissent
in jokes and cartoons. Most of
the institutions of the Soviet
state needed reform: the one-
party system represented by
the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union had tight control
over all institutions and was
unaccountable to the people.
The party refused to recognise
the urge of people in the fifteen
different republics that formed
the Soviet Union to manage
their own affairs including their
cultural affairs. Although, on
paper, Russia was only one of
the fifteen republics that together
constituted the USSR, in reality
Russia dominated everything,
and people from other regions felt
neglected and often suppressed.
What Was the s oviet
s ystem ?
The Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) came into being
after the socialist revolution in
Russia in 1917. The revolution was
inspired by the ideals of socialism,
as opposed to capitalism, and the
need for an egalitarian society.
This was perhaps the biggest
attempt in human history to
abolish the institution of private
property and consciously design
a society based on principles of
equality. In doing so, the makers of
the Soviet system gave primacy to
the state and the institution of the
party. The Soviet political system
centred around the communist
party, and no other political
party or opposition was allowed.
The economy was planned and
controlled by the state.
After the Second World War,
the east European countries that
the Soviet army had liberated
from the fascist forces came
under the control of the USSR.
The political and the economic
systems of all these countries
were modelled after the USSR.
This group of countries was called
the Second World or the ‘socialist
bloc’. The Warsaw Pact, a military
alliance, held them together. The
USSR was the leader of the bloc.
The Soviet Union became
a great power after the Second
World War. The Soviet economy
was then more developed than the
rest of the world except for the US.
It had a complex communications
network, vast energy resources
including oil, iron and steel,
Vladimir Lenin
(1870-1924)
Founder of the
Bolshevik
Communist party;
leader of the
Russian Revolution
of 1917 and the
founder-head of
the USSR during
the most difficult
period following
the revolution
(1917-1924); a
practitioner of
Marxism and
a source of
inspiration for
communists all
over the world.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
Chapter 1.indd 2 15-03-2024 11:45:31
2024-25
Page 3
Overview The Berlin Wall, which had been
built at the height of the Cold
War and was its greatest symbol,
was toppled by the people in
1989. This dramatic event was
followed by an equally dramatic
and historic chain of events that
led to the collapse of the ‘second
world’ and the end of the Cold
War. Germany, divided after the
Second World War, was unified.
One after another, the eight East
European countries that were
part of the Soviet bloc replaced
their communist governments in
response to mass demonstrations.
The Soviet Union stood by as the
Cold War began to end, not by
military means but as a result
of mass actions by ordinary men
and women. Eventually the Soviet
Union itself disintegrated. In this
chapter, we discuss the meaning,
the causes and the consequences
of the disintegration of the ‘second
world’. We also discuss what
happened to that part of the world
after the collapse of communist
regimes and how India relates to
these countries now.
Chapter 1
The End of Bipolarity
The Berlin Wall
symbolised the division
between the capitalist
and the communist
world. Built in 1961
to separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than
150 kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally
broken by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the
unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning of
the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict:
1. People making a tiny hole in the wall
2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement
3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989
Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm,
www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin
3. www.cs.utah.edu
Chapter 1.indd 1 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Contemporary World Politics
2
machinery production, and a
transport sector that connected
its remotest areas with efficiency.
It had a domestic consumer
industry that produced everything
from pins to cars, though their
quality did not match that of the
Western capitalist countries. The
Soviet state ensured a minimum
standard of living for all citizens,
and the government subsidised
basic necessities including
health, education, childcare and
other welfare schemes. State
ownership was the dominant
form of ownership: land and
productive assets were owned
and controlled by the Soviet state.
The Soviet system, however,
became very bureaucratic and
authoritarian, making life very
difficult for its citizens. Lack of
democracy and the absence of
freedom of speech stifled people
who often expressed their dissent
in jokes and cartoons. Most of
the institutions of the Soviet
state needed reform: the one-
party system represented by
the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union had tight control
over all institutions and was
unaccountable to the people.
The party refused to recognise
the urge of people in the fifteen
different republics that formed
the Soviet Union to manage
their own affairs including their
cultural affairs. Although, on
paper, Russia was only one of
the fifteen republics that together
constituted the USSR, in reality
Russia dominated everything,
and people from other regions felt
neglected and often suppressed.
What Was the s oviet
s ystem ?
The Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) came into being
after the socialist revolution in
Russia in 1917. The revolution was
inspired by the ideals of socialism,
as opposed to capitalism, and the
need for an egalitarian society.
This was perhaps the biggest
attempt in human history to
abolish the institution of private
property and consciously design
a society based on principles of
equality. In doing so, the makers of
the Soviet system gave primacy to
the state and the institution of the
party. The Soviet political system
centred around the communist
party, and no other political
party or opposition was allowed.
The economy was planned and
controlled by the state.
After the Second World War,
the east European countries that
the Soviet army had liberated
from the fascist forces came
under the control of the USSR.
The political and the economic
systems of all these countries
were modelled after the USSR.
This group of countries was called
the Second World or the ‘socialist
bloc’. The Warsaw Pact, a military
alliance, held them together. The
USSR was the leader of the bloc.
The Soviet Union became
a great power after the Second
World War. The Soviet economy
was then more developed than the
rest of the world except for the US.
It had a complex communications
network, vast energy resources
including oil, iron and steel,
Vladimir Lenin
(1870-1924)
Founder of the
Bolshevik
Communist party;
leader of the
Russian Revolution
of 1917 and the
founder-head of
the USSR during
the most difficult
period following
the revolution
(1917-1924); a
practitioner of
Marxism and
a source of
inspiration for
communists all
over the world.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
Chapter 1.indd 2 15-03-2024 11:45:31
2024-25
The End of Bipolarity
3
Joseph Stalin
(1879-1953)
Successor to Lenin
and led the Soviet
Union during its
consolidation
(1924-53);
began rapid
industrialisation
and forcible
collectivisation
of agriculture;
credited with
Soviet victory
in the Second
World War; held
responsible for
the Great Terror
of the 1930s,
authoritarian
functioning and
elimination of
rivals within the
party.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
Gorbachev, did not intervene
when the disturbances occurred,
and the communist regimes
collapsed one after another.
These developments were
accompanied by a rapidly
escalating crisis within the USSR
that hastened its disintegration.
Gorbachev initiated the policies
of economic and political reform
and democratisation within
the country. The reforms were
opposed by leaders within the
Communist Party.
A coup took place in 1991 that
was encouraged by Communist
Party hardliners. The people had
tasted freedom by then and did
not want the old-style rule of the
Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin
emerged as a national hero in
opposing this coup. The Russian
Republic, where Yeltsin won a
popular election, began to shake
off centralised control. Power
began to shift from the Soviet
centre to the republics, especially
in the more Europeanised part
of the Soviet Union, which saw
themselves as sovereign states.
The Central Asian republics
did not ask for independence
and wanted to remain with the
Soviet Federation. In December
1991, under the leadership of
Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and
Belarus, three major republics
of the USSR, declared that the
Soviet Union was disbanded. The
Communist Party of the Soviet
Union was banned. Capitalism
and democracy were adopted
as the bases for the post-Soviet
republics.
In the arms race, the Soviet
Union managed to match the US
from time to time, but at great
cost. The Soviet Union lagged
behind the West in technology,
infrastructure (e.g., transport,
power), and most importantly, in
fulfilling the political or economic
aspirations of citizens. The Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
weakened the system even further.
Though wages continued to grow,
productivity and technology fell
considerably behind that of the
West. This led to shortages in all
consumer goods. Food imports
increased every year. The Soviet
economy was faltering in the late
1970s and became stagnant.
Gorbachev and the
d isinte Gration Mikhail Gorbachev, who had
become General Secretary of
the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union in 1985, sought
to reform this system. Reforms
were necessary to keep the USSR
abreast of the information and
technological revolutions taking
place in the West. However,
Gorbachev’s decision to normalise
relations with the West and
democratise and reform the
Soviet Union had some other
effects that neither he nor anyone
else intended or anticipated. The
people in the East European
countries which were part of the
Soviet bloc started to protest
against their own governments
and Soviet control. Unlike in the
past, the Soviet Union, under
Chapter 1.indd 3 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Page 4
Overview The Berlin Wall, which had been
built at the height of the Cold
War and was its greatest symbol,
was toppled by the people in
1989. This dramatic event was
followed by an equally dramatic
and historic chain of events that
led to the collapse of the ‘second
world’ and the end of the Cold
War. Germany, divided after the
Second World War, was unified.
One after another, the eight East
European countries that were
part of the Soviet bloc replaced
their communist governments in
response to mass demonstrations.
The Soviet Union stood by as the
Cold War began to end, not by
military means but as a result
of mass actions by ordinary men
and women. Eventually the Soviet
Union itself disintegrated. In this
chapter, we discuss the meaning,
the causes and the consequences
of the disintegration of the ‘second
world’. We also discuss what
happened to that part of the world
after the collapse of communist
regimes and how India relates to
these countries now.
Chapter 1
The End of Bipolarity
The Berlin Wall
symbolised the division
between the capitalist
and the communist
world. Built in 1961
to separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than
150 kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally
broken by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the
unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning of
the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict:
1. People making a tiny hole in the wall
2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement
3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989
Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm,
www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin
3. www.cs.utah.edu
Chapter 1.indd 1 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Contemporary World Politics
2
machinery production, and a
transport sector that connected
its remotest areas with efficiency.
It had a domestic consumer
industry that produced everything
from pins to cars, though their
quality did not match that of the
Western capitalist countries. The
Soviet state ensured a minimum
standard of living for all citizens,
and the government subsidised
basic necessities including
health, education, childcare and
other welfare schemes. State
ownership was the dominant
form of ownership: land and
productive assets were owned
and controlled by the Soviet state.
The Soviet system, however,
became very bureaucratic and
authoritarian, making life very
difficult for its citizens. Lack of
democracy and the absence of
freedom of speech stifled people
who often expressed their dissent
in jokes and cartoons. Most of
the institutions of the Soviet
state needed reform: the one-
party system represented by
the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union had tight control
over all institutions and was
unaccountable to the people.
The party refused to recognise
the urge of people in the fifteen
different republics that formed
the Soviet Union to manage
their own affairs including their
cultural affairs. Although, on
paper, Russia was only one of
the fifteen republics that together
constituted the USSR, in reality
Russia dominated everything,
and people from other regions felt
neglected and often suppressed.
What Was the s oviet
s ystem ?
The Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) came into being
after the socialist revolution in
Russia in 1917. The revolution was
inspired by the ideals of socialism,
as opposed to capitalism, and the
need for an egalitarian society.
This was perhaps the biggest
attempt in human history to
abolish the institution of private
property and consciously design
a society based on principles of
equality. In doing so, the makers of
the Soviet system gave primacy to
the state and the institution of the
party. The Soviet political system
centred around the communist
party, and no other political
party or opposition was allowed.
The economy was planned and
controlled by the state.
After the Second World War,
the east European countries that
the Soviet army had liberated
from the fascist forces came
under the control of the USSR.
The political and the economic
systems of all these countries
were modelled after the USSR.
This group of countries was called
the Second World or the ‘socialist
bloc’. The Warsaw Pact, a military
alliance, held them together. The
USSR was the leader of the bloc.
The Soviet Union became
a great power after the Second
World War. The Soviet economy
was then more developed than the
rest of the world except for the US.
It had a complex communications
network, vast energy resources
including oil, iron and steel,
Vladimir Lenin
(1870-1924)
Founder of the
Bolshevik
Communist party;
leader of the
Russian Revolution
of 1917 and the
founder-head of
the USSR during
the most difficult
period following
the revolution
(1917-1924); a
practitioner of
Marxism and
a source of
inspiration for
communists all
over the world.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
Chapter 1.indd 2 15-03-2024 11:45:31
2024-25
The End of Bipolarity
3
Joseph Stalin
(1879-1953)
Successor to Lenin
and led the Soviet
Union during its
consolidation
(1924-53);
began rapid
industrialisation
and forcible
collectivisation
of agriculture;
credited with
Soviet victory
in the Second
World War; held
responsible for
the Great Terror
of the 1930s,
authoritarian
functioning and
elimination of
rivals within the
party.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
Gorbachev, did not intervene
when the disturbances occurred,
and the communist regimes
collapsed one after another.
These developments were
accompanied by a rapidly
escalating crisis within the USSR
that hastened its disintegration.
Gorbachev initiated the policies
of economic and political reform
and democratisation within
the country. The reforms were
opposed by leaders within the
Communist Party.
A coup took place in 1991 that
was encouraged by Communist
Party hardliners. The people had
tasted freedom by then and did
not want the old-style rule of the
Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin
emerged as a national hero in
opposing this coup. The Russian
Republic, where Yeltsin won a
popular election, began to shake
off centralised control. Power
began to shift from the Soviet
centre to the republics, especially
in the more Europeanised part
of the Soviet Union, which saw
themselves as sovereign states.
The Central Asian republics
did not ask for independence
and wanted to remain with the
Soviet Federation. In December
1991, under the leadership of
Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and
Belarus, three major republics
of the USSR, declared that the
Soviet Union was disbanded. The
Communist Party of the Soviet
Union was banned. Capitalism
and democracy were adopted
as the bases for the post-Soviet
republics.
In the arms race, the Soviet
Union managed to match the US
from time to time, but at great
cost. The Soviet Union lagged
behind the West in technology,
infrastructure (e.g., transport,
power), and most importantly, in
fulfilling the political or economic
aspirations of citizens. The Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
weakened the system even further.
Though wages continued to grow,
productivity and technology fell
considerably behind that of the
West. This led to shortages in all
consumer goods. Food imports
increased every year. The Soviet
economy was faltering in the late
1970s and became stagnant.
Gorbachev and the
d isinte Gration Mikhail Gorbachev, who had
become General Secretary of
the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union in 1985, sought
to reform this system. Reforms
were necessary to keep the USSR
abreast of the information and
technological revolutions taking
place in the West. However,
Gorbachev’s decision to normalise
relations with the West and
democratise and reform the
Soviet Union had some other
effects that neither he nor anyone
else intended or anticipated. The
people in the East European
countries which were part of the
Soviet bloc started to protest
against their own governments
and Soviet control. Unlike in the
past, the Soviet Union, under
Chapter 1.indd 3 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Contemporary World Politics
4
The declaration on the
disintegration of the USSR and the
formation of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) came as
a surprise to the other republics,
especially to the Central Asian
ones. The exclusion of these
republics was an issue that was
quickly solved by making them
founding members of the CIS.
Russia was now accepted as
the successor state of the Soviet
Union. It inherited the Soviet seat
in the UN Security Council. Russia
accepted all the international
treaties and commitments of the
Soviet Union. It took over as the
only nuclear state of the post-
Soviet space and carried out some
nuclear disarmament measures
with the US. The old Soviet Union
was thus dead and buried.
Why did the s oviet Union
Disinte Grate ?
How did the second most
powerful country in the world
suddenly disintegrate? This is a
question worth asking not just to
understand the Soviet Union and
the end of communism but also
because it is not the first and may
not be the last political system to
collapse. While there are unique
features of the Soviet collapse,
there may be more general
lessons to be drawn from this
very important case.
There is no doubt that
the internal weaknesses of
Soviet political and economic
institutions, which failed to meet
the aspirations of the people, were
responsible for the collapse of
the system. Economic stagnation
for many years led to severe
consumer shortages and a large
section of Soviet society began to
doubt and question the system
and to do so openly.
Why did the system become
so weak and why did the economy
stagnate? The answer is partially
clear. The Soviet economy
used much of its resources in
maintaining a nuclear and military
arsenal and the development of its
satellite states in Eastern Europe
and within the Soviet system (the
five Central Asian Republics in
particular). This led to a huge
economic burden that the system
could not cope with. At the same
time, ordinary citizens became
more knowledgeable about the
economic advance of the West.
They could see the disparities
between their system and the
systems of the West. After years
of being told that the Soviet
A Communist Party bureaucrat drives down from Moscow to a collective
farm to register a potato harvest.
“Comrade farmer, how has the harvest been this year?” the official asks.
“Oh, by the grace of God, we had mountains of potatoes,” answers the
farmer.
“But there is no God,” counters the official.
“Huh”, says the farmer, “And there are no mountains of potatoes either.”
Nikita Khrushchev
(1894-1971)
Leader of the
Soviet Union
(1953-64);
denounced
Stalin’s leadership
style and
introduced
some reforms in
1956; suggested
“peaceful
coexistence”
with the West;
involved in
suppressing
popular rebellion
in Hungary and in
the Cuban missile
crisis.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
I am amazed! How
could so many
sensitive people
all over the world
admire a system like
this?
Chapter 1.indd 4 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Page 5
Overview The Berlin Wall, which had been
built at the height of the Cold
War and was its greatest symbol,
was toppled by the people in
1989. This dramatic event was
followed by an equally dramatic
and historic chain of events that
led to the collapse of the ‘second
world’ and the end of the Cold
War. Germany, divided after the
Second World War, was unified.
One after another, the eight East
European countries that were
part of the Soviet bloc replaced
their communist governments in
response to mass demonstrations.
The Soviet Union stood by as the
Cold War began to end, not by
military means but as a result
of mass actions by ordinary men
and women. Eventually the Soviet
Union itself disintegrated. In this
chapter, we discuss the meaning,
the causes and the consequences
of the disintegration of the ‘second
world’. We also discuss what
happened to that part of the world
after the collapse of communist
regimes and how India relates to
these countries now.
Chapter 1
The End of Bipolarity
The Berlin Wall
symbolised the division
between the capitalist
and the communist
world. Built in 1961
to separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than
150 kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally
broken by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the
unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning of
the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict:
1. People making a tiny hole in the wall
2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement
3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989
Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm,
www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin
3. www.cs.utah.edu
Chapter 1.indd 1 14 September 2022 11:01:41
2024-25
Contemporary World Politics
2
machinery production, and a
transport sector that connected
its remotest areas with efficiency.
It had a domestic consumer
industry that produced everything
from pins to cars, though their
quality did not match that of the
Western capitalist countries. The
Soviet state ensured a minimum
standard of living for all citizens,
and the government subsidised
basic necessities including
health, education, childcare and
other welfare schemes. State
ownership was the dominant
form of ownership: land and
productive assets were owned
and controlled by the Soviet state.
The Soviet system, however,
became very bureaucratic and
authoritarian, making life very
difficult for its citizens. Lack of
democracy and the absence of
freedom of speech stifled people
who often expressed their dissent
in jokes and cartoons. Most of
the institutions of the Soviet
state needed reform: the one-
party system represented by
the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union had tight control
over all institutions and was
unaccountable to the people.
The party refused to recognise
the urge of people in the fifteen
different republics that formed
the Soviet Union to manage
their own affairs including their
cultural affairs. Although, on
paper, Russia was only one of
the fifteen republics that together
constituted the USSR, in reality
Russia dominated everything,
and people from other regions felt
neglected and often suppressed.
What Was the s oviet
s ystem ?
The Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) came into being
after the socialist revolution in
Russia in 1917. The revolution was
inspired by the ideals of socialism,
as opposed to capitalism, and the
need for an egalitarian society.
This was perhaps the biggest
attempt in human history to
abolish the institution of private
property and consciously design
a society based on principles of
equality. In doing so, the makers of
the Soviet system gave primacy to
the state and the institution of the
party. The Soviet political system
centred around the communist
party, and no other political
party or opposition was allowed.
The economy was planned and
controlled by the state.
After the Second World War,
the east European countries that
the Soviet army had liberated
from the fascist forces came
under the control of the USSR.
The political and the economic
systems of all these countries
were modelled after the USSR.
This group of countries was called
the Second World or the ‘socialist
bloc’. The Warsaw Pact, a military
alliance, held them together. The
USSR was the leader of the bloc.
The Soviet Union became
a great power after the Second
World War. The Soviet economy
was then more developed than the
rest of the world except for the US.
It had a complex communications
network, vast energy resources
including oil, iron and steel,
Vladimir Lenin
(1870-1924)
Founder of the
Bolshevik
Communist party;
leader of the
Russian Revolution
of 1917 and the
founder-head of
the USSR during
the most difficult
period following
the revolution
(1917-1924); a
practitioner of
Marxism and
a source of
inspiration for
communists all
over the world.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
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3
Joseph Stalin
(1879-1953)
Successor to Lenin
and led the Soviet
Union during its
consolidation
(1924-53);
began rapid
industrialisation
and forcible
collectivisation
of agriculture;
credited with
Soviet victory
in the Second
World War; held
responsible for
the Great Terror
of the 1930s,
authoritarian
functioning and
elimination of
rivals within the
party.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
Gorbachev, did not intervene
when the disturbances occurred,
and the communist regimes
collapsed one after another.
These developments were
accompanied by a rapidly
escalating crisis within the USSR
that hastened its disintegration.
Gorbachev initiated the policies
of economic and political reform
and democratisation within
the country. The reforms were
opposed by leaders within the
Communist Party.
A coup took place in 1991 that
was encouraged by Communist
Party hardliners. The people had
tasted freedom by then and did
not want the old-style rule of the
Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin
emerged as a national hero in
opposing this coup. The Russian
Republic, where Yeltsin won a
popular election, began to shake
off centralised control. Power
began to shift from the Soviet
centre to the republics, especially
in the more Europeanised part
of the Soviet Union, which saw
themselves as sovereign states.
The Central Asian republics
did not ask for independence
and wanted to remain with the
Soviet Federation. In December
1991, under the leadership of
Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and
Belarus, three major republics
of the USSR, declared that the
Soviet Union was disbanded. The
Communist Party of the Soviet
Union was banned. Capitalism
and democracy were adopted
as the bases for the post-Soviet
republics.
In the arms race, the Soviet
Union managed to match the US
from time to time, but at great
cost. The Soviet Union lagged
behind the West in technology,
infrastructure (e.g., transport,
power), and most importantly, in
fulfilling the political or economic
aspirations of citizens. The Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
weakened the system even further.
Though wages continued to grow,
productivity and technology fell
considerably behind that of the
West. This led to shortages in all
consumer goods. Food imports
increased every year. The Soviet
economy was faltering in the late
1970s and became stagnant.
Gorbachev and the
d isinte Gration Mikhail Gorbachev, who had
become General Secretary of
the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union in 1985, sought
to reform this system. Reforms
were necessary to keep the USSR
abreast of the information and
technological revolutions taking
place in the West. However,
Gorbachev’s decision to normalise
relations with the West and
democratise and reform the
Soviet Union had some other
effects that neither he nor anyone
else intended or anticipated. The
people in the East European
countries which were part of the
Soviet bloc started to protest
against their own governments
and Soviet control. Unlike in the
past, the Soviet Union, under
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Contemporary World Politics
4
The declaration on the
disintegration of the USSR and the
formation of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) came as
a surprise to the other republics,
especially to the Central Asian
ones. The exclusion of these
republics was an issue that was
quickly solved by making them
founding members of the CIS.
Russia was now accepted as
the successor state of the Soviet
Union. It inherited the Soviet seat
in the UN Security Council. Russia
accepted all the international
treaties and commitments of the
Soviet Union. It took over as the
only nuclear state of the post-
Soviet space and carried out some
nuclear disarmament measures
with the US. The old Soviet Union
was thus dead and buried.
Why did the s oviet Union
Disinte Grate ?
How did the second most
powerful country in the world
suddenly disintegrate? This is a
question worth asking not just to
understand the Soviet Union and
the end of communism but also
because it is not the first and may
not be the last political system to
collapse. While there are unique
features of the Soviet collapse,
there may be more general
lessons to be drawn from this
very important case.
There is no doubt that
the internal weaknesses of
Soviet political and economic
institutions, which failed to meet
the aspirations of the people, were
responsible for the collapse of
the system. Economic stagnation
for many years led to severe
consumer shortages and a large
section of Soviet society began to
doubt and question the system
and to do so openly.
Why did the system become
so weak and why did the economy
stagnate? The answer is partially
clear. The Soviet economy
used much of its resources in
maintaining a nuclear and military
arsenal and the development of its
satellite states in Eastern Europe
and within the Soviet system (the
five Central Asian Republics in
particular). This led to a huge
economic burden that the system
could not cope with. At the same
time, ordinary citizens became
more knowledgeable about the
economic advance of the West.
They could see the disparities
between their system and the
systems of the West. After years
of being told that the Soviet
A Communist Party bureaucrat drives down from Moscow to a collective
farm to register a potato harvest.
“Comrade farmer, how has the harvest been this year?” the official asks.
“Oh, by the grace of God, we had mountains of potatoes,” answers the
farmer.
“But there is no God,” counters the official.
“Huh”, says the farmer, “And there are no mountains of potatoes either.”
Nikita Khrushchev
(1894-1971)
Leader of the
Soviet Union
(1953-64);
denounced
Stalin’s leadership
style and
introduced
some reforms in
1956; suggested
“peaceful
coexistence”
with the West;
involved in
suppressing
popular rebellion
in Hungary and in
the Cuban missile
crisis.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
I am amazed! How
could so many
sensitive people
all over the world
admire a system like
this?
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The End of Bipolarity
5
system was better than Western
capitalism, the reality of its
backwardness came as a political
and psychological shock.
The Soviet Union had become
stagnant in an administrative
and political sense as well. The
Communist Party that had ruled
the Soviet Union for over 70
years was not accountable to
the people. Ordinary people
were alienated by slow and
stifling administration, rampant
corruption, the inability of the
system to correct mistakes it had
made, the unwillingness to allow
more openness in government,
and the centralisation of authority
in a vast land. Worse still, the
party bureaucrats gained more
privileges than ordinary citizens.
People did not identify with the
system and with the rulers, and
the government increasingly lost
popular backing.
Gorbachev’s reforms promised
to deal with these problems.
Gorbachev promised to reform the
economy, catch up with the West,
and loosen the administrative
system. You may wonder why the
Soviet Union collapsed in spite of
Gorbachev’s accurate diagnosis
of the problem and his attempt
to implement reforms. Here is
where the answers become more
controversial, and we have to
depend on future historians to
guide us better.
The most basic answer seems
to be that when Gorbachev carried
out his reforms and loosened the
system, he set in motion forces and
expectations that few could have
predicted and became virtually
impossible to control. There were
sections of Soviet society which
felt that Gorbachev should have
moved much faster and were
disappointed and impatient with
his methods. They did not benefit
in the way they had hoped,
or they benefited too slowly.
Others, especially members of the
Communist Party and those who
were served by the system, took
exactly the opposite view. They
felt that their power and privileges
were eroding and Gorbachev was
moving too quickly. In this ‘tug
of war’, Gorbachev lost support
on all sides and divided public
opinion. Even those who were
with him became disillusioned as
they felt that he did not adequately
defend his own policies.
All this might not have led to
the collapse of the Soviet Union
but for another development that
surprised most observers and
indeed many insiders. The rise
of nationalism and the desire
for sovereignty within various
republics including Russia and
the Baltic Republics (Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania), Ukraine,
Georgia, and others proved to
be the final and most immediate
cause for the disintegration of
the USSR. Here again there are
differing views.
One view is that nationalist
urges and feelings were very much
at work throughout the history of
the Soviet Union and that whether
or not the reforms had occurred
there would have been an internal
struggle within the Soviet Union.
This is a ‘what-if’ of history, but
surely it is not an unreasonable
Leonid Brezhnev
(1906-82)
Leader of the
Soviet Union (1964-
82); proposed
Asian Collective
Security system;
associated with
the détente phase
in relations with
the US; involved
in suppressing a
popular rebellion
in Czechoslovakia
and in invading
Afghanistan.
LEADERS OF THE
SOVIET UNION
Chapter 1.indd 5 14 September 2022 11:01:41
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