Approaches to Intelligence and Problem Solving | Crash Course for UGC NET Education PDF Download

PART B Approaches to Intelligence and Problem Solving

Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. It has been defined in many different ways Including, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, reasoning, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning and problem solving.

The term intelligence means the ability to have benefit from experience, which implies the ability to behave adaptively, to function successfully within particular environments. The word "intelligence derives from the Latin word 'interleggere' which means to pick out or discern. It is a general mental capability that, among other things, Involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely learning, or narrow academic skill, rather it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings-'catching on', 'making sense' of things or 'figuring out what to do.

Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although, these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent. A given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of intelligence are attempts to clarify and organise this complex set of phenomena. Although, considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualisation has yet answered all the important questions and none commands universal assent.

Few concepts in psychology have received more devoted attention and few have resisted clarification so thoroughly. Despite many efforts over the years to develop some independent definition of the term, Its connotations have remained Intimately lnterwlned with the techniques developed for Its measurement

Binet, the inventor of the individual intelligence test, felt that intelligent behaviour would be manifested In such abilities as reasoning, Imagination, insight, judgement and adaptability, so he designed his tests to evaluate just these functions. Still others have argued that all such abilities are

only manifestations of a single underlying factor (the so called general factor), which is presumed to be at the root of all intellectual functioning.

Intelligence may be regarded as a sort of mental energy (in the form of mental or cognitive abilities) available with an individual to enable him to handle his environment in terms of adaptation and facing novel situations as effectively as possible.

Thus, we can conclude that

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It is the ability to learn.

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It is the ability to deal with abstraction.

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It is the ability to make adjustment or to adapt to new situations.

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It is the ability or power of making appropriate responses to certain stimuli in a given situation.

Definitions of Intelligence

According to David Wechsler, Intelligence is defined as "The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment".

According to Cyril Burt, "Intelligence is an innate generate cognitive ability".

According to Howard Gardner, "To my mind a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that, he or she encounters and when appropriate, to create an effective product and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems and thereby laying the ground work for the acquisition of new knowledge".

According to Woodworth and Marquis, "Intelligence means intellect put to use. It is the use of intellectual abilities for handling a situation or accomplishing any task".

Approaches to Intelligence

There are many views regarding what constitutes intelligence. Different psychologists have given different viewpoints and formulated their own theories of intelligence.

Some important approaches to intelligence are as follows

Modern Approach

The modern approaches of intelligence call into questions the following. such as Meta issues that are related to understanding a person's own thinking,

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Aspects which take into consideration knowledge. Specific behaviour of oriented adaptations towards achieving goals and multiple intelligences. So, modern approach integrates the concept of intelligence in the context of information processing.

System Approach

System approach to intelligence is related to Gardner Theory of Multiple Intelligence in which intelligence is not just a single, unitary construct. He used converging operations, gathering evidence from multiple sources and types of data. Instead of speaking of multiple abilities that together constitute intelligence, Gardner speaks of eight distinct intelligences that are relatively independent of each other.

Contextual Approaches

According to contextualists, intelligence cannot be understood outside its real-world context. The context of intelligence may be viewed at any level of analysis, focusing narrowly, on the home and environment or on entire cultures. Contextualists are particularly intrigued by the effects of cultural context on intelligence.

Cognitive Approaches

Cognitive theorists are interested in studying how people or other organisms mentally represent and process what they learn and know about the world. The ways in which various cognitive investigatiors study intelligence differ primarily in terms of complexity of the processes being studied. This approach was advocated by Ted Nettelbeck, Arthur Jensen, Earl Hunt and Herbert Simon.

Social Intelligence

Social intelligence is a major component to make healthy social relations with people in a society. The concept of social intelligence was given by Edward Thorndike in the year 1920. Through it, people connects with each other and understands about facts and phenomenas. It includes an awareness of situations and the social dynamics that govern them and a knowledge of interaction styles and strategies that can help a person to achieve his or her objectives in dealing with others. In other words, it is the capacity to to effectively negotiate complex social relationships and environment.

Definitions of Social Intelligence

" In 1920, Thorndike states that "Social intelligence is the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act wisely in human relations".

social In 1945, Cater V. Good states that "Social intelligence can be define as the ability to adjust oneself to the social environment and to act for its improvement it is an individual's ability to deal effectively with relationships and with noval social situations".

In 1983, Howard Gardner states that "Social intelligence is the capacity to know oneself and to know other is an inalienable part of the human condition as is the capacity to know objects or sounds and it observes to be investigated no less than these other less charged forms".

In 1984, M. Goldenson Robert states that "Social intelligence is the degree of ease and effectiveness displayed by a person in social relationships".

Elements of Social Intelligence

Knowledge Related to Society Socially intelligent people know how to live and behave in the society. They are well-versed in social relations.

Effective Listening Skills It is seen that socially intelligent persons are good listeners. They leaves a good impression on others.

Word Fluency and Conversational Skills Socially intelligent persons can be easily identified by others as they have good conversational skills. They are highly socially intelligent person who can carry on conversations with a wide variety of people.

Effective in Classroom Management Socially intelligent teachers have skills to deal with individual differences. They know effective elements which are useful in classroom discipline management. Social intelligence is a key tool for teachers to remove the educational problems related to self and society.

Multiple Intelligence

Multiple intelligence is a combination of distinct types of intelligences and each of these intelligences are independent to each other.

In multiple intelligence, each person posses each intelligence to an extent, but there is always a primary or more dominant intelligence. The Theory of Multiple Intelligence was given by Howard Gardner in the year 1983, who formulated the term of multiple intelligence. As per his theory, the traditional method to assess human intelligence i.e. 1.Q. test is far too limited and there are eight different types of intelligence which a human posses.

Such as

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Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Number /reasoning smart)

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Spatial Intelligence (Picture smart)

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Linguistic Intelligence (Word smart)

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Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body smart)

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Musical Intelligence (Music smart)

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Inter-personal Intelligence (People smart)

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lntrapersonal Intelligence (Self-smart)

8.

Naturalist Intelligence (Nature smart)

Definitions of Multiple Intelligence

According to Hattie, "Multiple Intelligence provides students with multiple ways to access content improves learning".

According to Hammond, "Multiple intelligence provides students with multiple ways to demonstrate knowledge and skills Increases engagement and learning and provides teachers with more accurate understanding of students' knowledge and skills".

Elements of Multiple Intelligence

Here are some elements that would help if they were introduced to classrooms

Visuals Visual media can make complex concepts easier to comprehend so it helps make learners' lives easier.

Realia These are physical tangible objects that learners can touch and feel. These objects are very effective in teaching motor skills. For instance, in some subjects students have to attend lab and workshop sessions for better understanding.

Colour On the subjects that will need multi-media, colour is important if the object's colour is relevant to what is being learned

Learning Ability Some learners are not as good readers as others. For these learners, the concept will be hard to grasp if the lesson is primarily delivered using written materials. Incorporating some visuals in the teaching materials will help a big deal.

More Emphasis on Identifying Strengths There is a bigger need to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the students. With this understanding, the teacher can pick the teaching materials that work best for the learners.

Emotional Intelligence

In Psychology, emotional intelligence is the ability to identify and manage your emotions, as well as other people's emotions. The concept of emotional intelligence was propounded by Daniel Goleman (1998), an American psychologist, in his book, 'Working with Emotional Intelligence. In his book, he

stated that emotional intelligence accounts for 67% of the abilities needed to be a successful leader. He further suggested that it is twice as important as techinical proficiency or IQ. This research has subsequently been supported by a number of studies. He also identified five main components of emotion a I intelligence.

Definitions of Emotional Intelligence

According to Peter Salovey and John Mayer, "Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional meanings, and to reflectively regulate emotions in ways that promote emotional and intellectual growth".

According to Hein, "Emotional intelligence is the innate potential to feel, use, communicate, recognise, remember, learn from manage, understand and explain emotions".

Components of Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman determined that there are five fundamental components of emotional intelligence which are follows

Self Awareness As per this component, people with high emotional intelligence understand their emotions, strengths and weaknesses and they don't let their feeling rule them. They continuously work on these areas so that they can perform better.

They can also recognise the effect of their moods and motivations on others. To become a self-aware person, one must monitor his/her emotional state and identify his/her own emotions.

Self-Regulation As per this component, people have the ability to control their emotions and impulses. These people think before they act. They typically don't allow themselves to become too angry or jealous, and they don't make impulsive, careless decisions.

According to Goleman, emotional maturity is seen in this -component where people are able to take responsibility for their actions, being able to adapt to change, and also have the ability to respond appropriately to other people's irrational emotions or behaviour.

Internal Motivation According to Goleman, people who have an interest in learning and self improvement, set their goals and follow them. He also stated that an emotionally mature individual in this category has traits such as having initiative and the commitment to complete a task, and having perseverance in the face of adversity. These people are highly productive who love challenges and are effective in whatever they do.

Empathy According to Goleman, empathetic people have the ability to identify with and understand the wants, needs and view points of people around them. These people avoid stereotyping and judging too quickly and they live their lives in an open, honest way. He stressed that empathy can only be achieved if

self-awareness is achieved. He believed that one must be able to understand themselves before they can understand others.

Social Skills People with strong social skills have the ability to manage relationships in a way that benefits others. They are always ready to help others rather than focus on their own success. According to Goleman, these people have emotional maturity who can easily manage disputes, are excellent communicators and are excellent at building and maintaining relationships.

Theories of Intelligence

There are different theories about intelligence in educational psychology. Different psychologists have given different viewpoints and formulated their own theories of intelligence. The main theories are Sternberg's Triarchic Theory and Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence which are discussed below

Gardner Theory of Multiple Intelligence

The Theory of Multiple Intelligence was proposed by Howard Gardner. He put forth on new and re­defined view of human intellectual competencies in his book, "Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence" (1983). According to Gardner, intelligence is not a single entity, rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of intelligence. He also put forth that different types of intelligence interact and work together to find a solution to a problem. He studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas and described eight types of intelligence.

Types of Intelligence

The eight types of intelligence according to Gardner are as follows-

Linguistic It is a kind of skill involved in the production and use of language. It is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding, etc. This is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one's thinking and understand others. Persons high on this intelligence are word-smart, i.e. they are sensitive to different word meanings, are articulate and can create linguistic images in their mind. e.g. poets and writers are very strong in this component of intelligence.

Logical Mathematical This type of skill is involved in scientific thinking and problem solving. This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically. It is exhibited in scientific work. e.g. scientists and Nobel prize winners are likely to be strong in this component.

Spatial This type of intelligence have skills which are used in forming visual images and visual patterns. The kinds of skills used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using mental images. The

person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the mind. Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators and surgeons are likely to have developed visual spatial intelligence.

Musical This type of intelligence gives sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns. It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Persons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations and in creating new patterns of sounds e.g. singers are likely to be strong in this component.

Bodily Kinesthetic In this type of intelligence, the whole or portion of the body is used flexibly and creatively. This consists of the use of the whole body or portion of it for display or construction of products and problem solving. It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor movements such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making and so on.

Interpersonal It is the sensitivity to subtle aspects of others behaviours. This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviour of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others e.g. psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers and religious leaders have high degree of this intelligence.

lntrapersonal It is an awareness of one's own feelings, motives and desires. This refers to the knowledge of one's internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge, to effectively relate to others. Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human existence and meaning of life e.g. philosophers and spiritual leaders having strong intrapersonal skills.

Naturalistic It is the sensitivity to the features of the natural world. It is related to recognising the flora and fauna and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences and the like.

Although Gardener's theory was widely popular over the last two decades but it was also criticised by other psychologists. Some Psychlogists argued that his theory was too much based on his own intuition rather than any empirical data, while others felt that the intelligence described by Gardner were synonymous for personality type.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence is another important modern theory of intelligence. It was proposed by Robert Sternberg in 1985. It attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in solving problems.

According to Sternberg, "Intelligence is the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one's goals and those of one's society and culture". According to this theory, there are three basic types of human intelligence

Elements/Types of the Triarchic

Theory of Intelligence

Componential Intelligence

Experiential Intelligence

Contextual Intelligence

Componential Intelligence

Componential intelligence or analytical intelligence involves the ability to think critically and analytically. Persons high on this dimension usually excel on standard tests of academic potential and make excellent students. It consists of internal mental mechanisms that are responsible for intelligent behaviour.

This intelligence has three components, each serving a different functions:

Knowledge Acquisition Component This refers to the meaningful acquisition of new information and relating that information (relation between onion and vegetable or jasmine and flower) to the prior knowledge {meanings of onion, vegetable, jasmine and flower) existing in the memory.

Meta Component refers to how one directs ones own thinking i.e. performance and knowledge acquisition components. It means the way in which one's thinking to understand the problem and choose the strategy to solve the problem using the performance components. It is the knowledge about one's own thinking.

Meta-components are higher-order mental processes that determine which performance and learning components will be used as well as the sequence in which they will be used. These components are common for all tasks; they plan, monitor and evaluate what one is doing. Furthermore, they activate performance and knowledge acquisition components.

Performance Component includes basic operations which are involved in any cognitive act/process. These are the processes that are used to perform a task or solve a problem. This component is the one that is measured best by existing intelligence tests.

Experiential Intelligence

The second type of intelligence is experiential or creative intelligence, which emphasises insight and the ability to formulate new ideas. Persons who are high on this dimension have excellent mind and are able to find out which information/facts are crucial and which are not

This is the kind of intelligence shown by many scientific geniuses and inventors, such as Einstein, Newton and some would say Freud. It focuses on the relationship between the person's inner, mental world and the outer external world.

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This aspect is concerned with the effect of intelligence on one's experiences as well as the effect of person's interaction with the environment on intelligence. This view adds creativity (or novelty and originality) to the overall conception of intelligence.

A creatively intelligent person may not particularly perform well on a test of intelligence, but is able to combine different experiences in uniquely original ways. A second aspect of experiential intelligence is the ability to automatise or make routine tasks that are encountered repeatedly. An example of automatising is reading, which is carried out largely without conscious thought. Playing music is another example of this type of activity.

Contextual Intelligence

Sternberg states the third type of intelligence as contextual or practical intelligence and in some ways, it is the most interesting of all. Persons high on this dimension are intelligent in a practical, adaptive sense, they have what many would term street smarts and are able to solve the problems of everyday life. People high on contextual sense remains practical or down to Earth in life. Such people remains involved in activities such as implementing, using, applying and seeking relevance.

Contextual Sub-Theory Specifies the behaviours considered intelligent in a particular culture Experiential Sub-Theroy Specifies how experiences affect intelligence and how intelligence affects a person's experiences Componentlal Sub-Theory Specifies the cognitive processes that underlie all Intelligent behaviour Ł Meta Components Control, monitor and evaluate cognitive processing Performance Components Execute strategies assembled by meta components Knowledge Acquisition Components Encode, combine and compare information Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Assessment of Intelligence

Generally, it is seen that intelligence of a person is different from the others. The intelligence of people are assess by a number of intelligence scales/tests which have been devised by many psychologists.

Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests are psychological tests that are designed to measure a variety of mental functions, such as reasoning, comprehension and judgement. Intelligence tests assess the characteristics of human intelligence. Western psychologists discovered various methods to measure human intelligence. In this direction, the first attempt was made by Wilhelm Wundt, who established a laboratory in 1879 which was dedicated to Psychology to assess intelligence. In 1900, Cattell used some measures of intelligence a such as, strength of grip, colour discrimination and rote memory.

However, the major effort was made by Alfred Binet, who was a French Psychologist and also known as the 'Father of Mental Testing' and pioneer of intelligence testing.

Types of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests are of several types. They can be classified as either verbal or performance tests on the basis of the nature of items used.

Some of the tests are as follows

Individual or Group Tests An Individual intelligence test is one which can be administered to one person at a time. A group intelligence test can be administered to several persons simultaneously. Individual tests allow people to answer orally or in a written form while the group tests generally seek written answers usually in a multiple choice format.

Verbal, Non-verbal or Performance Tests An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully non-verbal or fully performance based, or it may consist of a mixture of iterms from each category. Verbal tests presented in words and languages and can be administered only to iterate people whereas non-verbal tests use pictures or illustrations as test items. Performance tests require subjects to manipulate objects and other materials to perform a task.

Culturally Biased Tests Psychologists have tried to develop that does not discriminate against individuals belonging to different cultures. In such tests, items are constructed in a manner that they assess experiences common to all cultures. Some of the important types of intelligence scales/tests are given below

Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale/Test Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale/Test

This general test of mental ability was devised by Alfred Binet and his collegue, Theodore Simon in 1905. At first, he gave a very crude scale of 30 items to assess mental age. This scale was revised in the year 1908, and he prepared a scale of 59 items for the age group 3 to 13 years along with a method offinding out the mental age. He again revised his scale in the year 1911 and prepared a scale which contained tests for age group 3 to 16 years.

With the help of this scale, Binet could identify whether a person is average, above or below, depending upon his mental age.

According to his test, if a person gives all the answers as per his age is considered 'Average', if gives all the answers set for people above his age is considered above average' and if does not give answer as per his age is considered 'below the average'.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale/Test.

The Binet-Simon Intelligence test was further revised and expanded by Lewis Terman in the year 1916 at Stanford University. This scale is known as Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. This scale had 90 items. In the year 1937, two higher age groups were added in this scale i.e. Superior adult mental age is 19 years and very superior adult mental age is 22 years.

In this type of test, intelligence is analysed by five factors of cognitive ability. These five factors are fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual spatial processing and working memory. In this test, both verbal and non-verbal responses are measured.

During this test, each of the five factors is given a weightage and the combined score is often reduced to a ratio commonly known as IQ. It is the most commonly used test of intelligence today.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale/Test

It is an intelligence test which was developed by a clinical psychologist, Dr. David Wechsler, in the year 1939. This test was developed for both children and adults. It is an individual test which has the unique quality of being simultaneously a verbal as well as a performance scale.

This scale/test consists of 11 tests, which 6 are verbal scale and 5 are performance scale. Such as

Verbal Scale

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Test of general information

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Test of general comprehension

Test of arithmetic reasoning

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Test of distinction between similarities

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Test of memory/digit span• Test of vocabulary

Performance Scale

Digit symbol test .

Picture completion ttes

Block design test

Picture arrangement test

Object assembly test

The scores on these sub-tests are added together to assess the individual's intelligence.

ft is of two types:-

(i)

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) It covers children between the age of 6 to 16 years,

(ii)

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Adults (WISA) It covers adults and elder adolescents.

Intelligence Quotient

When intelligence is assessed by intelligence tests than it is expressed in terms of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The concept of Intelligence Quotient was introduced by William Stem in the year 1912.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is the ratio of mental age and chronological age, which is multiplied by 100 in order to eliminate the decimal point.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of a person can be expressed through the following formula:

IQ Mental Age (MA) = . X 100 Chronological Age (CA)

Mental age is defined as the measure of an individual's mental attaiment based on the age in which he/she takes individual average to reach that same level of attainment, In other words, mental age is the age level of an individual's mental ability: an

Chronological age is the actual age of a person which is based on the calendar date when he/she was born.

For eg If the mental age of a child is 12 years and his/her chronological age is 10 years, then what IQ level he/ she possess?

According to the formula,

12 IQ = Ł x I00 =120 10

10 Hence, he/she possess IQ level 120.

Intelligence Quotient given by Wechsler

Classification of People on the Basics of IQ

IQ Range.

Descriptive Label

Above 130.

Very superior

120-129

Superior

110-119.

High average

90-109

Average

80-89

Low average

70-79.

Borderline

Below 70.

Mentally challenged/Retarded

Problem-solving

My In Cognitive Psychology, the term problem-solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyse and solve problems. The ultimate goal of the problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and to find a solution that best revolves around the issue. This is an essential exercise for individual advancement and also for the advancement of society.

Definitions of Problem-solving

In 1968, Skinner states that "Problem solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment in spite of interferences".

In 1948, Woodworth and Marquis states that "Problem-solving behaviour occurs in normal or difficult situations in which a solution is not obtainable by the habitual methods of applying concepts and principles derived from the past experiences which are very similar to the present situations".

Nature of Problem Solving

The problem-solving behaviour involves quite deliberate, conscious and serious efforts on the part of the problem-solver.

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One has to utilise one's thinking and reasoning powers and engage in serious mental work by systematically following some well-organised steps for the removal of the difficulties and obstacles.

Problem-solving behaviour helps in the removal of or adjustment with, interferences and ultimately helps an individual to reach his goal and satisfy his motives.

progress and Problem-solving behaviour helps an individual in the growth and development of his personality, making his life happier and wiser by appropriate adjustment. It also contributes significantly to the development of society.

Steps in Problem Solving

In order to solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. These steps are known as problem solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organising knowledge.

The major steps of problem-solving process are given below:-

Identify Evaluar Explore Implement Set goals SeŁok at alternatwes steps of Problem-Solving Process

Identifying the Problem The first step in the problem-solving process is to identify the problem, by sizing up the situation. It may seem an obvious and simple step, but it is the most important step in the problem-solving process. It is the base of the whole process. If a wrong problem is identified, the whole process gets futile.

Some useful techniques for identifying the problem includes

comparison with others

monitor weak signals

checklist

brain storming

comparison of current performance with last performance

listing complaints

role playing

Exploring the Problem After identifying the problem, its root cause should be find. Often people focus on symptoms or effects of the problem, but ignore the real cause. The point here is to focus on analysing the problem for the real cause. It also helps in fully defining the problem, so that it can be solved.

Setting Goals After exploring and analysing the problem, the focus should be on making a goal statement that emphasises on the successful end of the problem. Making a goal statement, helps in clarifying the direction to take in solving the problem and gives definite focus on the solution of the problem. It is a way of addressing the problem and fixing the gap between the problem and the goal.

Look at Alternatives After analysing and setting up goals, the next step is to develop possible solutions. This is a creative as well as practical step, where every possible solution is identified.

Various alternative solutions are identified through the following techniques:

Analysis of past solutions

Reading Researching Thinking

Asking questions

Discussing

Brain storming

# Mind Mapping

Mind mapping is a nether technique that can be used for identifying alternative solutions. It was developed by Tony Buzan in 1970.

Mind mapping uses pictures and word phrases to organise and develop thoughts in a non-linear fashion. It helps the people to see the problem and its solution.

To do mind mapping, take a sheet of plain paper and in center write or draw the issue that is to be solved. Draw lines out of main problem and each line should represents different aspects of the problem. It gives a clear picture of the problem.

Select the Best Solution After getting a wide variety of possible solutions, the next step is to select the best solution to solve the problem. Resources and other considerations like money, time, policy, people, rules, procedures that can affect the solution are also selected.

Implementation It is the most crucial part of the problem-solving process. Action plan is developed in order to implement the solution of the problem. Action plan confirms the plans and events of solving the problem.

Evaluation This is the final step in the problem-solving process. The effectiveness of the solution is reviewed against the desired outcomes. In this stage, careful analysis of solution is done.

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Factors Affecting Problem Solving

Problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of factors which interfere in the problem­solving process. These are as follows: can

Functional Fixedness It is the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner, It prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution.

Assumption While dealing with the problem, people often make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.

Irrelevant or Misleading Information In the problem-solving process, it is important to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information. When the problem is complex, it becomes easier to focus on misleading or irrelevant information and it should be avoided.

Mental Set It is the tendency of people to use only solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative solutions. It can often work as heuristic by making a useful problem solving technique. or it can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs, pre-judices and identify the truth.

opinions to sort out the facts and Critical thinking represents challenging thought process which leads a person to new avenues of knowledge and understanding. Intact, it is a sructural approach of thinking to find ways and means for the improvement of thinking process itself. For critical thinking, a person must have higher cognitive abilities and skills for the proper interpretation, analysis, evaluation and interference as well as explanation of the gathered information resulting in a purposeful, unbiased and self-regulatory judgement.

Definitions of Critical Thinking

Edward Glaser defines critical thinking as follows

An attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way and the problems and subjects that came within the range of one's experiences.

Knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning.

Some skill in applying those methods.

Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of evidence that supports it and further concludes to which it tends. According to Michael Scriven and Richard Paul, "Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully

conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, reasoning or communication as a guide to belief and action".

Nature of Critical Thinking

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It is a higher order well-disciplined thought process. It involves the use of cognitive skills like conceptualisation, interpretation, analysis, synthesis and evaluation for arriving at an unbiased, valid and reliable judgement the gathered or communicated information or data as a guide to one's belief and action. of

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The value of critical thinking lies in its quality of being most skillful and responsible thinking that facilitates good judgement.

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It is self-correcting and sensitive to the contemporary issues and circumstances.

. It is the basis and reliable support for carrying out the process of problem-solving.

. It discourages the child to merely adopt things without proper understanding. Rather it makes him/her a self-reliant, conscious, independent enquirer and discoverer to find out the reality beyond assumptions.

Thus, it is our responsibility to encourage our youngsters to have the required critical thinking which is essential to discover the realities of the world,

Importance of Critical Thinking

ft helps to understand the logical connections between ideas..

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It helps to identify, construct and evaluate arguments.

It helps to solve a problem critically without loosing any important fact..

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ft helps a person to identify the relevance and importance of ideas.

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/ta/so helps to detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning.

Metacognition

The term 'metacognition' was first coined by John Flavell, an American Developmental Psychologist, in the year 1979. The word 'meta' means 'beyond' and 'cognition' means 'thinking', so the term 'metacognition' refers to 'beyond thinking'.

According to him, "metacognition is a cognition about cognitive phenomenon, or basically thinking about thinking".

Definitions of Metacognition

In 1988, Cross and Paris states that "Metacognition is the knowledge and the control that children have over their own thinking and learning activities".

In 1999, Hennessey states that "Metacognition is the awareness of one's own thinking, awareness of the content of one's conception, as active monitoring of one's cognitive processes, an attempt to regulate one's cognitive processes in relationship to further learning, and an application of a set of heuristics as an effective device for helping people to organize their methods of attacks in general".

Nature of Metacognition

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It highlights in-depth thinking in which cognitive processes are actively controlled.

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It focuses on planning which includes how a task can be accomplished. It monitors, understands and estimates progress towards the completion of a particular task.

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With the help of metacognition, a student can be aware of how dedicated he is to reach his goals, of how strong his trait of perseverance is, and of how focused his attention is to a task that involves thinking or writing. He can also regulate his dedication, disposition, and attention.

Components of Metacognition

John Flavell identified two components of metacognition which are given below

Metacognitive knowledge

It is the awareness individuals possess about themselves and other people as cognitive proknowledg

It has three types such as

Declarative Knowledge It means person's knowledge or understanding one's own capabilities.

Procedural Knowledge It means task knowledge, including content and length.

Strategy Knowledge It means conditional knowledge or one's ability to use strategies to learn information as well as for adapting these strategies to new situations.

Metacognitive Regulation

It has the sequential process that one uses to control cognitive activities and to ensure that a cognitive goal has been achieved. This process helps to regulate and oversee learning and consists of planning and monitoring cognitive activities. These processes also check the outcomes of those activities.

ft has three skills such as

Planning It involves suitable selection of strategies and the right assignment of resources.

Monitoring It includes awareness of understanding and task performance.

Evaluating It refers to the assessment of the final result of a task and the efficiency carried out during that particular task performance.

Creativity

Creativity is a mental process involving the generation of new ideas or concepts, or new associations of the creative mind between existing ideas or concepts. It is simply the act of making something new..

As we know that no two individuals are alike. Humans are made by God, thus, every one of us is a unique creation, but does not possess the same creative abilities as others have.

Some of us have creative talents and contributes to advancement in the fields of an art, literature, science, business, and other spheres of human activity. Abraham Lincolon, Homi Bhabha, Mahatma Gandhi, Einstein, Shakespere and many others are the examples of having creative thinking abilities. With the help of creativity, people creates something new and lead a unique life which is different from others.

Definitions of Creativity

In 1973, Stagner and Karwoski states that "Creativity is the production of a "totally or partially' novel identity". In 1931, Pearman states that "Creativity is the power of the human mind to create new contents by transforming a

relations and thereby generating new correlates". In 1978, MJ Levin states that "Creativity is the ability to discover new solutions to problems or to produce new ideas, inventions or work of an art. It is a special form of thinking, of viewing the world and interacting with it in a manner different from that of the general population". In 1974, Wilson, Guilford and Christensen states that a way

"The creative process is any process by which something new is produced i.e., an idea or an object including a new form or arrangement of old elements. The new creation must contribute to the solution of some problems".

Nature of Creativity

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It is not confined to any individual, groups of individuals, caste, colour or creed. It is universal. Everyone of us possesses it and is capable of demonstrating creativity to some extent

. • It is a God given gift as well as is the result of influence of cultural background, experiences, education and training

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It produces something new or novel.

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It has a wide scope which is not restricted by any limits or boundaries or scientific inventions or production of work.

It is a kind of adventurous thinking, calling a person to come out in the open to experess himself according to his/her will and to function unrestricted by routine or previous practice.

It covers multifarious human aspects like writing stories, composition of poems, performance in the field of dance and music and soon.