Physiology and Injuries in Sports Chapter Notes | Physical Education Class 12(XII) - Notes & Model Test Papers - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

Physiological Factors Determining the Component of Physical Fitness

Exercise physiology involves studying how the body responds to exercise, focusing on various systems such as the skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, metabolic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, all of which are affected by exercise. During physical activity, these systems work together, but their responses are independent.

• Metabolic System: Produces and regulates energy intake and output. 
• Cardiovascular System: Controls circulation, delivering oxygen and energy to muscles and removing waste products. 
• Respiratory System: Takes in air, diffusing oxygen to lungs and muscle tissue while removing carbon dioxide. 
• Neuromuscular and Skeletal System: Facilitates movement through muscle contraction. 
• Neuroendocrine and Immune System: Helps maintain the body's homeostasis.

To enhance fitness, different components require specific exercises performed at varying intensities and volumes, leading to different responses from these systems. Here, we will focus on three key physiological factors that influence various aspects of fitness.

Skeletal Muscle Factor

Muscle Fibers

• Slow Twitch Fibers (Type I): These fibers are rich in oxidative enzymes, capillaries, myoglobin, and mitochondrial enzymes, making them suitable for aerobic activities and resistant to fatigue. Their high capillary content gives them a red color and ensures a good blood supply. They contract slowly but can sustain activity for long periods, making them ideal for long-distance running, swimming, and cycling.
• Fast Twitch Fibers (Type II): These fibers have a higher concentration of glycolytic enzymes, promoting anaerobic activity. They have fewer mitochondria, resulting in limited aerobic capacity and lower fatigue resistance. Their lighter color reflects their lower blood supply needs. They contract quickly but tire rapidly, making them suitable for activities like sprinting, jumping, and throwing.
• Muscle Fiber Composition: The proportion of slow and fast twitch fibers in skeletal muscles, influenced by genetics, hormones, and exercise habits, plays a crucial role in determining strength, endurance, and speed. Regular training can alter the ratio of these fibers.
• Athlete Variations: Different athletes exhibit variations in muscle fiber types even within the same sport. For example, sprinters typically have a higher percentage of Type II fibers, while endurance athletes have more Type I fibers.
• Factors Influencing Muscle Contraction: The force generated by muscle contraction depends on several factors, including the number and types of motor units recruited, the length of the muscles, the nature of neural stimulation to the motor units, and the contractile history of the muscle.

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Energy Production Factor

Cellular Respiration and Energy Sources:

• Energy is produced in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) through the process of cellular respiration, which involves breaking down food sources such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Each of these macronutrients undergoes a different complex chemical process to generate ATP.
• During exercise, the metabolic system faces increased demand for energy, and the load on it increases manifold. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are the main sources of energy, with carbohydrates providing immediate energy, fats offering a larger amount of energy, and proteins contributing a smaller but significant proportion.

Energy Systems in the Body:

• ATP-CP (Creatine Phosphate) System: This system provides energy for activities lasting less than 10 seconds. It is used in high-intensity, short-duration activities such as sprints, jumps, and weightlifting.
• Anaerobic System: This system generates energy for activities lasting up to two minutes, such as 200m and 400m races. It does not rely on oxygen for energy production.
• Aerobic System: This system supplies energy for long-duration activities, including marathon running, football, and hockey. It relies on oxygen for energy production.

Interaction of Energy Systems:
The aerobic and anaerobic systems can work simultaneously, but the predominance of one system over the other depends on various factors, including the type, duration, and intensity of exercise, nutritional status, and the proportions of different muscle fiber types.

Cardiorespiratory Factor

The cardiorespiratory system comprises the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, working together to transport oxygen and nutrients to cells, supporting metabolism and providing energy to the neuromuscular and neuroendocrine systems. During exercise, the demand for energy increases, necessitating an adequate supply of oxygen. This demand varies based on the intensity, duration, and type of activity. To meet these needs, the respiratory system, including pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration, must function effectively.

The cardiovascular response to exercise is closely linked to the skeletal muscles' demand for oxygen. Factors such as maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 Max), blood pressure, blood volume, oxygen diffusion and extraction, and muscle and arterial blood flow all increase in response to activity.

Physical Fitness Components Determined by Physiological Factors

Strength: Strength is the body's ability to work against resistance and includes various sub-types such as maximum strength, explosive strength, and strength endurance. Different sports require different combinations of slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibers. For activities like weightlifting, jumping, sprinting, and other strength-dominating sports, a high percentage of fast-twitch fibers is necessary. These activities involve quick bursts of energy and fatigue quickly, requiring a higher proportion of fast-twitch fibers in the muscles.

Endurance: Endurance is the ability to sustain activity over a long period without fatigue. Activities range from brisk walking to running and marathons, all requiring long-duration, low-fatigue efforts. Endurance activities such as cycling and swimming rely on a higher percentage of slow-twitch fibers compared to fast-twitch fibers for optimal performance. The aerobic system provides energy during endurance training, with maximal oxygen consumption (VO2) and ventilation capacity playing crucial roles.

Speed: Speed refers to covering maximum distance in the shortest time possible. Speed training involves a high percentage of fast-twitch fibers in the muscles, as seen in activities like 100m races and roller skating. A key physiological factor for optimal speed performance is motor neuron stimulation, where the brain signals muscles to act quickly. The ATP-CP system provides the necessary energy for these activities.

Flexibility: Flexibility is the ability of muscles and tendons to stretch without injury. Activities such as stretching and yoga require significant flexibility, determined by factors like muscle elasticity, joint type, and body temperature. Muscles, tendons, and ligaments are essential components affecting flexibility. Understanding muscle groups such as agonists, antagonists, neutralizers, and stabilizers is crucial for training purposes. Agonists are muscles that contract to perform specific actions, while antagonists relax and lengthen to allow agonists to move. Synergist muscles work together to modify the action of the agonist and include conjoint, neutralizer, and stabilizer muscles.

Effect of Exercise on Muscular System

Exercise consists of a series of sustained muscle contractions, which can vary in duration depending on the type of physical activity. The impact of exercise on muscles can be categorized into short-term or immediate effects, observed during and shortly after exercise, and long-term, lasting effects.

Short-Term Effects of Exercise on the Muscular System

• Increased Blood Supply: During exercise, there is an increased supply of blood to match the fuel demand of the muscles, either throughout the body or in specific muscle groups engaged in physical activity.
• Increased Muscle Temperature: Exercise generates energy through muscle contractions, producing heat and raising the temperature of the muscles and, consequently, the body.
• Increased Muscle Flexibility: Enhanced blood flow and elevated temperature, along with stretching and mobility exercises, contribute to increased muscle flexibility.
• Accumulation of Lactate: Insufficient oxygen supply to muscles due to inadequate blood flow can lead to lactate acid accumulation, causing muscle pain and soreness.
• Micro-tears in Muscle Fibers: Exercise places stress on muscle tissue, resulting in micro-tears in muscle fibers. The body responds by repairing and enlarging these fibers, a process known as hypertrophy.
  
• Increase in Glycogen Storage: Regular exercise enhances the body’s ability to store glycogen in muscles and the liver, providing a continuous energy supply for 90 to 120 minutes.
• Increase in Oxidation/Metabolism: Endurance training boosts the capacity for fat oxidation in skeletal muscles by increasing mitochondrial density. This elevates metabolism to meet the energy demands of long-term exercises through fat oxidation.
• Increase in Lactate Acid Tolerance: Regular exercise improves the body’s tolerance to pain and soreness caused by lactate acid accumulation in muscles.

Long-Term Effects of Exercise on the Muscular System

• Hypertrophy of Muscle: Consistent and systematic exercise leads to an increase in the thickness of muscle fibers, resulting in larger muscle size, known as muscle hypertrophy.
• Increase in Strength of Ligaments and Tendons: Regular exercise strengthens bones, ligaments, and tendons, reducing the risk of injury and enhancing performance.
• Increase in Size and Number of Mitochondria: Aerobic exercises promote an increase in the size and number of mitochondria, which enhances the body’s capacity to intake oxygen and produce ATP and energy.
• Increase in Myoglobin Storage: Long-term aerobic exercise increases myoglobin storage, which facilitates oxygen transport to mitochondria, resulting in higher energy production.
• Increase in Glycogen Storage: Regular exercise enhances the body’s ability to store glycogen, providing a continuous energy source during physical activity.
• Increase in Oxidation/Metabolism: Endurance training enhances fat oxidation in skeletal muscles, increasing mitochondrial density and meeting the energy demands of prolonged exercise.
• Increase in Lactate Acid Tolerance: Regular exercise improves the body’s ability to tolerate pain and soreness caused by lactate acid accumulation in muscles.

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Effect of Exercise on Cardiorespiratory System

Cardiorespiratory system consists of two parts. They are

Cardiovascular system

• Heart: The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body. It is the central component of the cardiovascular system and plays a crucial role in maintaining circulation.
• Blood Vessels: Blood vessels are a network of tubes that carry blood throughout the body. There are three main types of blood vessels: arteries (which carry blood away from the heart), veins (which carry blood back to the heart), and capillaries (tiny vessels where the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste occurs).
• Blood: Blood is the fluid that circulates within the blood vessels. It consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products, playing a vital role in the body’s metabolism and overall function.

Functions of Cardiovascular System:

• Delivering Oxygen and Nutrients: The cardiovascular system is responsible for transporting oxygen and essential nutrients to cells and tissues throughout the body. This is crucial for maintaining cellular function and energy production.
• Removing Carbon Dioxide and Waste Products: The system helps remove carbon dioxide (a waste product of metabolism) and other metabolic waste products from cells, preventing toxic buildup and maintaining homeostasis.
• Transporting Hormones and Molecules: The cardiovascular system plays a role in transporting hormones and various molecules that regulate physiological processes, such as growth, metabolism, and immune responses.
• Supporting Thermoregulation: The system helps regulate body temperature by adjusting blood flow to the skin and extremities, facilitating heat dissipation or retention as needed.
• Controlling Body Fluid Balance: The cardiovascular system contributes to maintaining fluid balance in the body by regulating blood volume and pressure. This is essential for proper cellular function and overall homeostasis.
• Regulating Immune Function: The cardiovascular system plays a role in immune function by transporting white blood cells and antibodies to sites of infection or injury, helping to defend the body against pathogens and promote healing.

Respiratory system

• Nose and Nasal Cavity: The nose is the primary entry point for air, and the nasal cavity warms, moistens, and filters the air before it enters the lungs. The nasal passages also contain olfactory receptors responsible for the sense of smell.
• Pharynx: The pharynx, or throat, is a muscular tube that connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx (voice box) and esophagus. It plays a role in both respiration and digestion.
• Larynx: The larynx is located below the pharynx and contains the vocal cords, which vibrate to produce sound. It also acts as a gateway to the trachea, preventing food and liquids from entering the airway.
• Trachea: The trachea, or windpipe, is a tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi. It is lined with cilia and mucus to trap and expel foreign particles and pathogens.
• Bronchi and Bronchioles: The trachea divides into two bronchi, which enter the lungs and further branch into smaller bronchioles. These airways distribute air throughout the lungs.
• Lungs: The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system, where gas exchange occurs. They contain millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide between the air and blood.

Functions of Respiratory System:

• Transporting Air to the Lungs: The respiratory system is responsible for bringing air into the body and delivering it to the lungs, where oxygen can be absorbed and carbon dioxide expelled.
• Gas Exchange: One of the primary functions of the respiratory system is the exchange of gases between the air and blood. Oxygen (O2) is taken in from the air and transferred to the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide (CO2), a waste product of metabolism, is removed from the blood and exhaled.
• Regulating Blood pH: The respiratory system plays a crucial role in maintaining the pH balance of the blood. By regulating the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood through breathing, it helps to keep the blood’s acidity within a narrow range, which is essential for proper cellular function.

Effect of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

Short Term Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

• Increased Heart Rate: During exercise, the body requires more oxygen to fuel the working muscles. To meet this increased demand, the heart rate increases to pump more blood, and consequently more oxygen, to the muscles.
• Increased Blood Circulation: As the heart rate rises, blood circulation throughout the body also increases. This enhanced circulation ensures that oxygen and nutrients are delivered more efficiently to tissues and organs, supporting their increased activity during exercise.
• Increased Blood Pressure: Engaging in endurance exercise typically leads to an increase in systolic blood pressure, which correlates with the intensity of the exercise. This increase in systolic blood pressure is primarily due to the rise in cardiac output, which reflects the heart’s increased capacity to pump blood during physical activity.
• Increased Stroke Volume: Stroke volume refers to the amount of blood pumped by the heart during each contraction. During exercise, stroke volume increases to meet the higher oxygen demand. With regular endurance training, the heart’s capacity to pump blood per contraction can improve by 20 to 50 percent, enhancing overall cardiovascular efficiency.
• Increased Cardiac Output: Cardiac output is the total volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, calculated by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume. Resting cardiac output is approximately 5.0 liters per minute but can vary based on individual size. Maximal cardiac output can range from less than 20 liters per minute in sedentary individuals to over 40 liters per minute in elite endurance athletes. Increases in heart rate and stroke volume during exercise lead to higher cardiac output, facilitating greater oxygen delivery to muscles.

Long Term Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

• Increased Size and Strength of Heart: Regular aerobic exercise over time leads to an increase in the size and strength of the heart muscle, a phenomenon known as cardiac hypertrophy. A stronger, larger heart can pump blood more efficiently, improving overall cardiovascular performance.
• Decreased Lactic Acid Accumulation: Anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid as a byproduct when glucose is converted to energy without sufficient oxygen. Regular exercise enhances the muscles’ ability to function with lower oxygen levels, reducing lactic acid buildup. This adaptation allows for more efficient energy production and less muscle fatigue during intense physical activity.
• Decreased Resting Heart Rate: With improved cardiac efficiency from regular exercise, the heart requires fewer beats per minute at rest to meet the body’s needs. This condition, known as bradycardia, reflects a stronger heart that pumps blood more effectively with each contraction.
• Normal Blood Pressure: Endurance training can lead to significant reductions in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Regular physical activity helps maintain blood pressure within normal ranges, contributing to overall cardiovascular health.
• Increased Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output: As the heart adapts to regular exercise by increasing in size and strength, it pumps blood more efficiently, leading to increases in both stroke volume and cardiac output. This means the heart can deliver more blood, and consequently more oxygen, to the body with each beat, enhancing overall endurance and performance.
• Increased Capillary Network: Regular exercise stimulates the growth of new capillaries, improving capillary density in muscle tissues. This increase in capillary network allows for greater oxygen transport to muscles, enhancing their ability to perform intense exercise. Additionally, exercise helps prevent the decline in capillary function that can occur with aging, contributing to better overall vascular health.

Effect of Exercise on the Respiratory System

Short Term Effects

• Respiratory Rate: Increases to meet the higher oxygen demand during exercise, rising from a normal 12-20 breaths per minute at rest to about 40 breaths per minute.
• Tidal Volume: The amount of air inhaled and exhaled in one breath increases to take in more oxygen and expel carbon dioxide.
• Rate of Gas Exchange: Increases in the lungs to facilitate higher oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal.
• Pulmonary Diffusion: Increases, enhancing the exchange of gases between the lungs and blood.
• Residual Volume: Increases, which is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after forceful exhalation, aiding in gas exchange.
• Lung Volume: Increases, contributing to greater overall lung capacity.
• Efficiency of Respiratory Muscles: Improves, making inhalation and exhalation more effective and meeting oxygen demands more efficiently.

Long Term Effects

• Increased Efficiency of Respiratory Muscles: Regular exercise enhances the efficiency of respiratory muscles, making breathing smoother and more effective to meet oxygen demands.
• Increased Lung Volume: Prolonged and continuous exercise can significantly increase lung capacity and volume, with vital capacity potentially doubling compared to that of a non-exerciser.
• Increased Pulmonary Diffusion: Refers to the lungs' ability to allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass in and out of the blood. Regular sub-maximal exercise training enhances this capacity, increasing gas exchange and the size of alveoli.
• Increased Residual Volume: Regular exercise can increase residual volume, which helps maintain gas exchange within normal limits.

Physiological Changes Due to Ageing

Ageing is a complex and unavoidable process that involves the gradual decline of various organ systems and tissues. While it is primarily determined by our genes, it is also influenced by factors like diet, exercise, and exposure to different environmental elements.

Muscular Strength

• Muscular strength refers to the maximum force that a muscle or group of muscles can exert. Typically, both men and women reach their peak strength between the ages of 20 and 40, which coincides with the largest muscle cross-sectional area.

Decline in Strength:

• Concentric Strength: Most muscle groups experience a gradual decline in concentric strength, which becomes more pronounced after middle age.
• Eccentric Strength: The decline in eccentric strength starts later and progresses more slowly than the decline in concentric strength.

Gender Differences:

• Women: Strength loss begins later for women compared to men.
• Men: Experience a 40% to 50% reduction in muscle mass due to muscle fiber atrophy and loss of motor units between ages 25 and 80, contributing to reduced strength.

Neural Function

• Ageing leads to nearly a 40% reduction in spinal cord axons and a 10% decline in nerve conduction velocity, impacting central nervous system function. These changes contribute to slower neuromuscular performance, affecting both simple and complex reaction and movement times. The most significant impact is on the time required to detect stimuli and process information to initiate a response.

Endocrine Changes with Ageing
The endocrine system comprises glands that secrete hormones, which are chemical messengers regulating various bodily functions.

• Glucose Tolerance: Around 40% of individuals aged 65 to 75 and 50% of those over 80 experience impaired glucose tolerance, increasing the risk of Type 2 diabetes.
• Thyroid Dysfunction: Common in the elderly due to reduced release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and decreased output of thyroid hormones (like thyroxine). This affects metabolic functions such as glucose metabolism and protein synthesis.
• Growth Hormone: Mean pulse amplitude, duration, and the fraction of secreted growth hormone gradually decline with age, a condition known as somatopause.

Pulmonary Function

• As individuals age, mechanical constraints on the pulmonary system lead to a decline in both static and dynamic lung function. Additionally, the kinetics of pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange during the transition from rest to submaximal exercise slow down significantly.

Cardiovascular Function
Cardiovascular function and aerobic capacity are also affected by ageing.

• Maximum Heart Rate: Typically decreases with age, leading to a reduction in maximum cardiac output for both trained and untrained individuals.
• Peripheral Blood Flow: Capacity decreases with age, accompanied by a reduction in muscle mass.

Body Composition

• Body composition refers to the proportions of fat, bone, water, and muscle in the body. After the age of 60, total body mass tends to decrease, even as body fat increases.

Bone Mass
Bone mass measures the amount of minerals, primarily calcium and phosphorus, in a specific volume of bone.

• Osteoporosis: A significant concern with ageing, especially among postmenopausal women. This condition involves the loss of bone mass as the ageing skeleton demineralizes and becomes porous.
• Bone Mass Reduction: Bone mass can decrease by 30% to 50% in individuals over the age of 60.

Sports Injuries

• Sports injuries are common among athletes and can occur due to various reasons such as incorrect movements, collisions with equipment, aggressive actions like diving or sliding, overtraining, or lack of proper conditioning.
• These injuries can cause physical damage to tissues, bones, or organs and can lead to pain and withdrawal from participation.

Definitions

• Athletic Injury:. physical damage or insult to the body that occurs during athletic practice or competition, resulting in a loss of capacity or impaired performance.
• Sports Injury: Damage to the body tissues that occurs as a result of sport or exercise.
• Sports Injury (Alternate Definition): Stress or overstretch on soft tissues or bone during sports, leading to pain and hindering performance. Common injuries include cuts, tears, overstretching, bone fractures, and joint dislocations.

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Classification of Sports Injuries

• Direct Injuries: Injuries caused by an external force at the point of contact.
• Indirect Injuries: Injuries to soft tissues like ligaments, tendons, or muscles due to internal or external forces.
• Soft Tissue Injuries: Injuries to skin, muscles, or ligaments.
• Hard Tissue Injuries: Injuries to bones and cartilages.
• Overuse Injuries: Injuries caused by continuous or repetitive stress, incorrect technique, equipment issues, or excessive training.

Types of Soft Tissue Injuries

Soft Tissue Injuries

A soft tissue injury is the damage of muscles, ligaments and tendons throughout the body.

Abrasion: 

• Clean the affected area to remove any debris and contaminants.
• Apply pressure with compression bandages to stop bleeding.
• Administer an anti-tetanus injection if necessary to prevent tetanus infection.

Contusion:

• Cause:. contusion occurs when a part of the body is hit with enough force to crush the underlying muscle fibers and connective tissue without breaking the skin. This can happen due to a collision with another player or equipment, or from a heavy fall.
• Prevention: Wearing all necessary safety gear while playing, such as helmets and protective guards, can help prevent contusions.
• Treatment: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like Ibuprofen, or other pain relief medications as prescribed by a doctor, are commonly used for treatment.

Laceration:

• Cause: Lacerations are usually caused by the skin hitting an adjacent object or an object hitting the skin with force.
• Prevention: Using proper personal protective equipment, including eye protection, can help prevent lacerations.
• Treatment: Clean the affected area and stop any bleeding as soon as possible using compression bandages.

Strain:

• Cause: Strains can occur suddenly (acute strain) or develop gradually (chronic strain). Common causes include lifting heavy objects, running, jumping, or throwing.
• Prevention: Regular stretching and strengthening exercises relevant to the sport can help prevent strains.
• Treatment: Management includes applying ice packs and keeping the strained muscle in a stretched position, following the RICE method (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation).

Sprain:

• Cause:. sprain occurs when a ligament is overstretched or torn while stressing a joint, often seen in the ankle.
• Prevention: Regular stretching and strengthening exercises for the relevant sport can help prevent sprains.
• Treatment: Similar to strains, treatment involves the RICE method (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation).

Incision:

• Cause: Incisions are caused by sharp objects like knives, razors, or glass splinters cutting into the tissue.
• Prevention: Keeping areas free from sharp edges can help prevent incisions.
• Treatment: Wash the incision gently with soap and water, dry it with a clean towel, and apply a dressing to protect the area.

Hard Tissue Injuries

Hard tissue injuries refer to injuries sustained by the skeletal system, specifically involving fractures or breaks in the bone. These can include various types of fractures such as:

• Stress fractures
• Greenstick fractures
• Comminuted fractures
• Transverse fractures
• Oblique fractures
• Impacted fractures

Dislocation
Dislocations occur when the ends of bones are forced out of their normal position, often due to a fall, blow, or contact sports. A joint dislocation, also called luxation, happens when there is an abnormal separation in the joint where two or more bones meet. A partial dislocation is known as a subluxation. Dislocations can result from trauma (such as accidents or falls) or weakened muscles and tendons. Treatment may involve medication, manipulation, rest, or surgery.

Causes:
Dislocations are typically caused by trauma that forces a joint out of place, with accidents, falls, and contact sports like football being common culprits. Dislocations can also happen during everyday activities when the muscles and tendons surrounding the joint are weakened. Older individuals are more prone to these injuries due to weaker muscles and balance issues.

Symptoms:
The symptoms of a dislocated joint vary based on the injury's severity and location. Common symptoms include:

• Pain
• Swelling
• Bruising
• Joint instability
• Loss of movement in the joint
• A visibly deformed joint (bone appears out of place)

Treatment:
Treatment depends on the injury's severity and the affected joint. Initial measures include applying ice and elevating the joint to reduce pain until medical help is sought. Treatment options include:

• Medication: To relieve pain
• Manipulation: A doctor may realign the bones
• Rest: After realignment, the joint may need to be immobilized with a sling or splint for healing
• Rehabilitation: Physical therapy to strengthen the muscles and ligaments around the joint
• Surgery: Recommended if manipulation fails, or if the dislocation damages blood vessels, nerves, or bones, or tears muscles/ligaments

Fractures
A fracture refers to a bone break, typically caused by direct impact, such as a fall or heavy blow. Stress fractures occur over time due to repetitive use and overloading.

Stress Fracture
Stress fractures are usually the result of overuse or failure to use proper protective equipment.

• Causes: Often caused by a sudden increase in the intensity or amount of activity
• Prevention: Low-impact activities can prevent repetitive stress on specific body parts
• Treatment: Rest, ice therapy, anti-inflammatory medications (e.g., ibuprofen, aspirin), and recovery typically requires 6-8 weeks

Greenstick Fracture
A greenstick fracture occurs in young, soft bones and involves the bone bending rather than breaking completely.

• Causes: Usually happens during a fall
• Prevention: Regular exercise, child safety measures, and sufficient calcium intake can help prevent such fractures
• Treatment: Removable splints yield better results than casting in children with torus fractures in the distal radius

Comminuted Fracture
A comminuted fracture occurs when the bone is shattered into multiple pieces.

• Causes: Can result from both direct and indirect trauma or violence
• Prevention: Consuming calcium-rich foods and engaging in regular exercise helps maintain strong bones
• Treatment: An X-ray is used for diagnosis, and open reduction surgery (using surgical nails, wire plates, etc.) may be needed to realign bone fragments

Transverse Fracture
This fracture is characterized by a straight break across the bone.

• Causes: Occurs when force is applied directly and perpendicularly to the bone
• Prevention: Weight-bearing exercises and foods rich in calcium help strengthen bones
• Treatment: Can often be treated at home with rest and medication. A back brace or abdominal binder may also be prescribed to limit motion and reduce pain at the fracture site

Oblique Fracture
An oblique fracture involves a bone break at an angle.

• Causes: Typically caused by trauma such as a fall or accident
• Prevention: Regular exercise and calcium-rich foods can help prevent these fractures
• Treatment: Treatment depends on the fracture's severity, with anti-inflammatory medication and bone resetting (reduction) being common approaches

Impacted Fracture
An impacted fracture occurs when the broken ends of the bones are forced into each other.

• Causes: Often caused by a fall from height or significant impact
• Prevention: Increased physical activity, weight-bearing exercises, and proper calcium intake help prevent impacted fractures
• Treatment: As the bone is fragmented, a sling or splint is required to stabilize the bone and prevent further injury to the bone’s sharp ends