Causation in the Age of the Scientific Revolution Chapter Notes | AP European History - Grade 9 PDF Download

Introduction

Between 1450 and 1815, Europe experienced a profound intellectual and cultural transformation driven by the Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment. These movements challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, monarchies, and ancient knowledge, fostering modern science, democratic governance, secularism, and national identities. This chapter notes explores the shift from humanism to heliocentrism, the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas, and their impact on demographics, daily life, and persistent social inequalities.

Challenging the Old World

• From 1450 to 1815, Europe underwent a seismic intellectual and cultural shift. The rediscovery of classical texts during the Renaissance, empirical advancements of the Scientific Revolution, and rational philosophies of the Enlightenment challenged traditional authorities—namely the Catholic Church, monarchies, and ancient knowledge.
• Together, these movements laid the foundation for modern science, democratic governance, secularism, and the emergence of European national identities.

From Humanism to Heliocentrism: A Shift in Worldview

Renaissance Humanism as the Catalyst

• Renaissance scholars revived ancient Greek and Roman texts, emphasizing human reason, individual potential, and secular learning.
• Thinkers like Petrarch and Erasmus sparked intellectual curiosity, setting the stage for scientific and philosophical inquiry.

The Scientific Revolution (16th–17th Century)

• Building on Renaissance ideals, scientists adopted observation, experimentation, and mathematics, rejecting unproven Church teachings and classical assumptions.
• Key examples include:
  • Copernicus proposed the Heliocentric Theory, challenging Church-backed geocentric models.
  • Galileo Galilei used the telescope to support heliocentrism and championed evidence-based science, later silenced by the Inquisition.
  • Isaac Newton formulated the Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation, unifying astronomy and physics through mathematics.
  • William Harvey studied human anatomy and blood circulation, disproving Galen’s humoral theory.
• These discoveries were not merely scientific—they represented revolutionary acts of intellectual independence.

The Enlightenment: Reason as a Tool for Reform

In the 18th century, the Enlightenment extended the Scientific Revolution’s logic to politics, religion, and society. Philosophes challenged traditional hierarchies, advocating for a rational reordering of human life.

New Political and Social Ideas

• John Locke argued for natural rights (life, liberty, property) and government by consent.
• Voltaire promoted religious tolerance and criticized clerical power.
• Montesquieu introduced checks and balances through the separation of powers.
• Rousseau described the social contract, advocating for popular sovereignty.

These ideas undermined absolutist monarchs and state-sponsored religion, providing a framework for revolutionary change.

Disseminating New Ideas

• Despite censorship, Enlightenment ideas spread through print culture and social venues:
  • Printing Press & Pamphlets: Enabled rapid dissemination of radical ideas across Europe.
  • Salons & Coffeehouses: Hosted by elite women or open to the middle class, these were forums for public debate and civic engagement.
  • The Encyclopédie: Edited by Denis Diderot, this compiled scientific, philosophical, and political knowledge for widespread access.
• This intellectual exchange fostered the modern concept of public opinion, a precursor to democratic participation.

Changing Demographics and Daily Life

The Enlightenment influenced not only thought but also lifestyles.

Population Growth and Urbanization

• Improved sanitation, medicine, and agricultural output reduced child mortality and increased life expectancy.
• Smallpox inoculations, popularized by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, significantly lowered death rates.
• Urbanization accelerated as surplus agricultural labor migrated to growing cities.

Economic and Family Shifts

• A consumer revolution emerged, with the middle class purchasing textiles, books, mirrors, and decorative items.
• Family structures shifted from large, multi-generational households to nuclear families with fewer children.

Note: These changes reflected Enlightenment values of individualism, privacy, and domestic life.

Religious Skepticism and Tolerance

• The Enlightenment challenged long-standing religious doctrines:
  
  • Deism, promoted by Voltaire, viewed God as a detached creator, not an active force.
  • Skepticism questioned miracles, divine revelation, and Church authority.
  • Natural religion emphasized morality derived from reason and nature, not scripture.
• Many states separated Church and state and granted religious toleration, particularly in Protestant regions, though Catholic areas often resisted.

Continuities and Limits

Despite Enlightenment progress, social inequalities persisted:

• Most Enlightenment thinkers excluded women’s rights and universal suffrage.
• Slavery and colonialism continued, often justified by pseudo-scientific racial hierarchies.
• “Enlightened Despots” like Catherine the Great and Frederick the Great implemented reforms but maintained autocratic rule.

Conclusion

The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment were pivotal in shaping the modern world. They shifted European thought from divine revelation to reason and evidence, transformed governance and economies, and sparked revolutions in Europe and the Americas. The Enlightenment did not dismantle the old order instantly, but it ignited ideas that would reshape societies over time.

Key Terms

• Absolutism: Political system with a single ruler holding unchecked power, often justified by divine right.
• Adam Smith: Scottish economist whose The Wealth of Nations laid foundations for free-market economics.
• Aristotelian View of the Cosmos: Geocentric model with Earth at the universe’s center, overturned by heliocentrism.
• Consumer Culture: Social order encouraging consumption to express identity and status, emerging in the 18th century.
• Democracy: Government system where power lies with the people, directly or through representatives.
• Demographic Changes: Shifts in population structure, like 18th-century growth due to better health and agriculture.
• Empiricism: Philosophy prioritizing knowledge from sensory experience, key to the Scientific Revolution.
• Environmental Changes: Ecosystem shifts, influenced by Scientific Revolution discoveries and human activity.
• Enlightenment: 17th–18th-century movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority.
• Free Market Principles: Economic system with minimal government intervention, promoted by Adam Smith.
• Galileo: Italian scientist whose telescope observations supported heliocentrism, challenging Church doctrine.
• Human Reason: Capacity for logical judgment, central to Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution advancements.
• Individual Liberty: Personal freedoms, emphasized during the Enlightenment as a challenge to authority.
• Kepler: German astronomer whose laws of planetary motion supported heliocentrism.
• Medical Advances: Scientific Revolution improvements in medicine, like anatomy and vaccinations.
• Mercantilism: Economic policy prioritizing wealth accumulation through trade, challenged by free-market ideas.
• Montesquieu: French philosopher advocating separation of powers, influencing modern democracies.
• Natural Religion: Belief in morality from reason and nature, not scripture, popular during the Enlightenment.
• Newton: English scientist whose laws of motion and gravitation unified Scientific Revolution discoveries.
• Nuclear Family Unit: Two parents and children household, becoming common in 18th-century urban settings.
• Printing Press: Gutenberg’s invention enabling mass production of texts, spreading Renaissance and Enlightenment ideas.
• Rationalism: Philosophy prioritizing reason over experience, shaping Enlightenment thought.
• Rediscovery of Classic Works: Renaissance revival of Greek and Roman texts, fueling intellectual progress.
• Renaissance: 14th–17th-century cultural movement reviving classical learning and humanism.
• Religious Toleration: Acceptance of diverse faiths, promoted during the Enlightenment.
• Rousseau: Enlightenment philosopher advocating the social contract and popular sovereignty.
• Scientific Revolution: 16th–18th-century shift to empirical science, challenging traditional knowledge.
• Separation of Powers: Division of government into branches to prevent tyranny, proposed by Montesquieu.
• Skepticism: Questioning of accepted beliefs, driving Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment inquiry.
• Smallpox Vaccination: 18th-century immunization reducing smallpox deaths, improving public health.
• Social Contract: Theory of government legitimacy through citizen consent, proposed by Locke and Rousseau.
• Spinning Jenny: 1764 textile invention increasing production, key to the Industrial Revolution.
• Steam Engine: Machine powering Industrial Revolution factories and transport, transforming society.
• Technological Innovations: New tools and methods, like the steam engine, driving 18th-century progress.
• Voltaire: French Enlightenment thinker advocating religious tolerance and civil liberties.