Introduction to Memory Chapter Notes | AP Psychology - Grade 11 PDF Download

Introduction

Memory is a vital cognitive process that allows us to store, process, and retrieve information. It includes different types, such as explicit memories of facts and events, and implicit memories of skills and habits. Memory involves various systems, like sensory, short-term, and long-term storage, and models like working memory. By understanding how memory works, including how information is encoded at different levels, we can better learn and recall the information we encounter every day.

Short-Term Memory

• Short-term memory actively processes information for immediate use.
  • Capacity: Can hold about 7 ± 2 items, as proposed by George Miller.
  • Duration: Lasts 20–30 seconds without rehearsal.
• Divided Attention: Focusing on multiple tasks reduces performance and memory encoding.
• Working Memory Components:
  • Central executive: Coordinates other components.
  • Phonological loop: Handles verbal information.
  • Visuospatial sketchpad: Manages visual and spatial data.
  • Episodic buffer: Combines information from multiple sources.

Types of Memory

Memory is divided into explicit and implicit categories, each playing unique roles in cognition.

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of information.
  • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events.
  • Semantic Memory: General facts and knowledge.
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall of information.
  • Procedural Memory: Skills and learned behaviors.
  • Conditioning and Priming: Effects from past experiences influencing behavior.
• Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform future tasks, like attending appointments or running errands.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) Process

• Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the cellular process that strengthens memory storage.
• Occurs when neurons fire together repeatedly, enhancing their connections.
• Key features of LTP:
  • Improved synaptic transmission between neurons.
  • Increased efficiency in neural pathways.
  • Structural changes in synapses for long-term memory storage.
• These changes support the storage and retrieval of information over long periods.

Working Memory Model Components

• The working memory model explains how we temporarily store and manipulate information.
• Central Executive: Manages and coordinates all other components.
• Supporting Components:
  • Phonological Loop: Processes verbal and auditory information.
  • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information.
  • Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from different sources.
• Each component has limited capacity but works together to process information efficiently.

Multi-Store Memory Model

• Information passes through three memory stores with unique functions.
• Sensory Memory: Initial storage of raw sensory input.
  • Includes iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory).
  • Lasts only a fraction of a second.
• Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage for active processing.
  • Capacity of 7 ± 2 items.
  • Duration of 20–30 seconds without rehearsal.
• Long-Term Memory: Stores information for extended periods.
  • Nearly unlimited capacity.
  • Can last a lifetime.
  • Holds various types of information.
• Processing Types:
  • Automatic Processing: Requires minimal attention.
  • Effortful Processing: Needs conscious focus.

Levels of Processing Model

• Memory strength depends on how deeply information is encoded.
• Three Levels of Processing:
  • Structural: Focus on physical features (e.g., appearance); creates short-lived memories.
  • Phonemic: Focus on sound patterns (e.g., how words sound); creates moderately strong memories.
  • Semantic: Focus on meaning and associations; creates the strongest memories.
• Factors Affecting Encoding:
  • Depth of initial processing.
  • Amount of elaboration during encoding.
  • Connections made to existing knowledge.

Study Tips:

• Use phonemic processing by setting terms to music or songs.
• Use semantic processing by creating associations between words or experiences.