Medieval Society: The Empires of Krishnadevaraya and Akbar Chapter Notes | Footprints Class 7: Book Solutions, Notes & Worksheets PDF Download

Introduction

Domingo Paes, a traveler from Portugal, visited Vijayanagara around 1520-1522 CE during the rule of Krishnadevaraya. He described the fortified city of Vijayanagara, including its markets, temples, and the royal center. The last capital of the Vijayanagara Empire was located near present-day Hampi in Karnataka. The Group of Monuments at Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Key Points

• The Vijayanagara Empire under Krishnadevaraya emphasized Dharma (righteousness) and grand festivals.
• Temples were seen as a source of power in the empire.
• The empire had a flourishing trade system and advanced irrigation technology.
• It operated under the nayaka system of governance.
• The Mughal Empire under Akbar promoted Sulh-i-kul (peace with all) and formed alliances with the Rajputs.
• It employed the mansabdari system for military administration.
• Revenue systems were reformed under Todar Mal in the Mughal Empire.
• Contemporary Indian society has evolved over thousands of years, influenced by historical imperial structures.
• Factors like the caste system, economic policies, land revenue systems, changes in religious practices, and British colonization have shaped Indian society.

The Vijayanagara and Mughal Empires

In 1336 CE, a powerful new entity rose in southern India, spanning regions of present-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu. This entity, known as Vijayanagara, encompassed both an empire and the city that served as its capital. According to stories passed down orally and supported by geographical evidence, Vijayanagara was established by the renowned Brahmin brothers Bukka and Harihara, under the guidance of the revered medieval saint Vidyaranya. Over time, it witnessed rule by various dynasties.

Key Points

• Vijayanagara emerged in 1336 CE in southern India.
• It covered areas in modern-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu.
• Founded by Brahmin brothers Bukka and Harihara with the blessings of saint Vidyaranya.
• It served as both the empire and the capital city.
• Vijayanagara witnessed rule by different dynasties through its history.
• The Mughal Empire began in the 16th century in northern India.
• Founded by a dynasty of Chaghtai Turks from Farghana in Central Asia.
• Claimed descent from two renowned warriors, Timur and Chenghiz Khan.
• Timur ruled over Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey.
• Chenghiz Khan led the Mongol tribes of Central Asia and China.

Comparative Analysis: Krishnadevaraya and Akbar

State Policies of Krishnadevaraya

Centralisation of Authority through Symbolism

• The Vijayanagara kings, including Krishnadevaraya, claimed the title of Hindu sultans or 'Hindu Suratrana,' asserting that they ruled on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed as 'Shri Virupaksha,' emphasizing their strict adherence to 'Dharma,' which was a defining characteristic of the Vijayanagara state.
• The king ruled with absolute authority, believed to have a divine right to govern, though he was assisted by various ministers, officials, and military commanders known as nayakas.
• Through grand celebrations of festivals, such as the Mahanavami festival, Chariot festival, and pujas like Dussehra, the Vijayanagara kings reinforced their kingship, power, authority, and sovereignty over their people and the peripheral regions of the empire.

Appointment of Brahmanas to High Positions

• Brahmanas were not only patronized by the Vijayanagara kings as ritual specialists but were also entrusted with political, administrative, and military responsibilities, which helped in legitimizing the rulers' power.
• The founders of the Vijayanagara empire themselves claimed Brahmana status, marking a departure from the traditional varna hierarchy that linked political power and military strength with the Kshatriyas.
• Brahmanas, particularly those of Telugu origin, were appointed as commanders of important forts (dannaiks) and served as administrators and accountants.
• For their services, many Brahmanas were granted revenue from villages that were under crown control (bhandaravada).

Temples as the Source of Power

• Vijayanagara rulers, including Krishnadevaraya, built and renovated several temples and provided patronage to various religious sects. Krishnadevaraya constructed the Krishna Temple, added grand gopurams to existing temples, and built tanks at many other temples.
• The immense scale of the temples and gopurams demonstrated the imperial power, authority, and vast wealth of the Vijayanagara kings.
• While temples had existed before, the scale and grandeur seen during the Vijayanagara period were unprecedented.
• Another significant feature was the introduction of royal portrait sculptures in temples, highlighting the association between the deity and the king.
• The king's visits to temples were important state occasions, and he had the authority to arbitrate disputes concerning temples and endowed them with land and revenue grants.

Patronage to Irrigation Technology

• The kings of Vijayanagara, especially Krishnadevaraya, placed great importance on constructing large tanks and other irrigation channels.
• According to the scholar Abdur Razzaq, a large tank was built with the help of Portuguese masons.
• Domingo Paes, who visited Vijayanagara around 1520 CE, described a huge tank constructed at the mouth of two hills, which used multiple sluices and pipes to bring water to the city. The people of Vijayanagara used this water to irrigate their gardens and rice fields.
• It is believed that the Vijayanagara empire had three types of irrigation facilities: water storage tanks, river works through canals and diversion dams, and wells.

State Policies of Akbar

Centralisation of Authority as a Key Feature

• The Mughal emperor held absolute power, and all state decisions were executed in his name.
• The emperor also served as the commander-in-chief of the army and was the chief authority in all matters of justice.
• All nobles and officers within the empire owed their positions to the emperor.

Organised Governance of the Empire

• The empire was organized into large provinces called subas, each headed by a subadar as the administrative leader.
• The subadar was supported by other officials, including the diwan, bakshi, kotwal, sadr cum Qazi, and mir.
• Each suba was further divided into sarkars or districts, where the faujdar maintained law and order, and the amalguzar oversaw land revenue assessment and collection.
• Sarkars were subdivided into parganas, which consisted of villages.
• Officials such as shiqdars, muqaddams, and patwaris were responsible for maintaining land records, collecting land revenue, and ensuring law and order.

Policy Towards the Rajputs Aimed at Consolidating the Empire and Preventing Rebellions

• Akbar pursued a policy of matrimonial alliances with the Rajputs. His marriage to Harkha Bai (popularly known as Jodhabai), the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber (Jaipur), secured the crucial support of powerful rajas from Amber.
• He also formed matrimonial alliances with other Rajput princesses.
• High posts in the army and administration were assigned to Rajput chiefs such as Raja Todar Mal and Man Singh.
• Akbar refrained from annexing Rajput kingdoms that accepted his suzerainty and paid regular tributes.
• He followed a policy of non-intervention in the internal matters of Rajput states and abolished the jizya and pilgrimage tax, which were based on religious discrimination.

Religious Policy Guided by Enthusiasm to Unite the Entire Empire

• Sulh-i kul: Akbar believed in the policy of sulh-i kul, which means "universal peace" or "peace with all." He established a system of governance centered around this idea.
• He abolished many taxes that had previously been imposed on non-Muslim subjects.
• Many intellectual and capable Hindus were inducted into the nobility.
• Din-i Ilahi: In 1581, Akbar introduced a significant change in his religious policy by creating Din-i Ilahi, a synthesis of the best features of all religions.
  • It was an ethical code of conduct that emphasized moral values such as good behavior, piety, and compassion.
  • Din-i Ilahi was viewed as a religious-cum-ideological path based on reason rather than tradition and on shared commonalities across all religions.
• Ibadat Khana: In his eagerness to learn about different religions, Akbar built a Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 CE, known as the Ibadat Khana.
  • Here, he invited select mystics, intellectuals, and theologians (those who study religious thoughts and ideas) and held discussions on religious and spiritual themes.
  • Akbar invited scholars from various religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and even atheism, to conduct religious debates.

Approach towards Common People

• Akbar instituted jharokha darshan, where he appeared before the people on a balcony.
• He also participated in diwan-i-am sessions, during which he met and communicated with the common people.

Nature of Administration under Krishnadevaraya

The Nayaka System or Nayankara System

• The amara nayakas, or nayakas, were military commanders or chiefs who typically controlled forts or regions of territory and maintained armed forces. They were obligated to provide military support to the king when needed.
• These amara nayakas were usually granted forts or territories to govern.
• They were responsible for collecting taxes and other dues from all inhabitants on the land assigned to them. They retained a portion of this income for their personal use and for maintaining cavalry or elephant units, while the remainder was sent annually to the imperial treasury.
• A portion of the revenue collected by the nayakas could also be allocated for the maintenance of temples and irrigation systems.
• The nayakas were required to personally appear at the royal court, at least initially, to demonstrate their loyalty to the king. They could be transferred from one region to another by the king.

Temple Land Grants

• The construction and renovation of temples, along with the granting of land and/or revenues to these temples, transformed them into significant landholders.

Nature of Administration under Akbar

The Mansabdari System

• The Mughals implemented a distinctive system of ranks that was closely linked to local and land revenue administration. Under this system, each officer, referred to as a mansabdar, was assigned a specific rank.
• This system served as a grading mechanism to determine the rank, salary, and military responsibilities of the officer.
• The ranks were divided into zat and sawar.
• Zat determined the personal status and salary of the mansabdar. The higher the zat, the more prestigious the noble's position in the royal court, and the higher the salary. The lowest rank was 10, while the highest could reach up to 5,000 for nobles.
• Sawar indicated the number of cavalrymen the mansabdar was responsible for maintaining.
• The mansabdars received their salaries in the form of revenue assignments called jagirs.
• Since the jagirs were not hereditary, the mansabdars only had the right to collect revenue from the land allotted to them.
• A mansabdar typically began service at a lower rank but could rise higher through loyalty.

Types of Jagirs

• The land directly owned by the emperor was referred to as khalisa land. However, in theory, all land belonged to the emperor, who granted land to individuals in the form of jagirs.
• Tankha jagirs: These were granted in lieu of salary and were transferable.
• Watan jagirs: These were given to Rajputs and other significant chieftains. Their ancestral lands (watan) were returned to them as watan jagirs, and these were non-transferable.
• Inam jagirs: These were awarded to learned clerics and scholars in recognition of their contributions and were also non-transferable. Inam jagirs promoted agricultural expansion as half of these lands had to be cultivable wastelands.
• When jagirs were temporarily converted into khalisa lands, they were known as paibaqi lands.

Economic Activities during the Reign of Krishnadevaraya

Agriculture

• Agriculture was a cornerstone of the wealth in Vijayanagara, contributing significantly to the prosperity of the empire. Although much of the agricultural surplus was likely collected by the state through its agents, literary and archaeological sources do not report frequent occurrences of drought, famine, or rural distress.

Trade

• Krishnadevaraya actively promoted foreign trade, particularly in horses, which significantly boosted trade in various other commodities as well.
• Contemporary travelers documented the thriving inland, coastal, and overseas trade during his reign. It is believed that Vijayanagara had as many as 300 seaports.
• These travelers also noted the bustling markets of Vijayanagara, which were well-stocked with diverse goods, including horses, precious stones, spices, pearls, and jewelry.
• Trade in high-value goods from other countries elevated the status and prestige of merchants in society, and the revenue generated from this trade contributed to the overall prosperity of the state and its people.
• Trade also encouraged the specialization of merchants, with some focusing on specific commodities.

Temples as Centers of Economic Activities

• Temples played a significant role in the economic life of Vijayanagara, becoming centers for activities such as banking and commerce.
• The remains of rows of shops on either side of the road leading to the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi suggest that temples were focal points of commerce.
• Temples also provided employment opportunities and supported irrigation efforts.
• Often, temples became the nucleus of towns, aiding in the urbanization of surrounding areas.

Economic Activities during Akbar's Reign

Agriculture

• Agriculture was the most vital activity in the Mughal Empire, serving as the primary source of income through land revenue.
• Various classes of the rural population were engaged in agriculture, each with distinct rights and obligations. Historical records mention the presence of sharecroppers and landless agricultural laborers.

Taxation

• Akbar's finance minister, Todar Mal, developed a comprehensive land revenue system. He initiated a survey of crop yields, prices, and the area under cultivation over a 10-year period.
• Based on this survey, taxes were fixed for each crop in cash. The empire was divided into revenue circles, each with its own set of revenue rates for specific crops. This system was particularly effective in regions close to the empire's center.

Crafts and Trade

• Craftsmanship, especially in luxury goods like jewelry, carpets, muslin, silk, and brocades, flourished during Akbar's reign.
• Akbar actively supported state workshops, known as karkhanas, which were involved in the production of ornaments, jewelry, and guns. Additionally, textile manufacturing, iron and steel production, and diamond mining were significant industries during this period.
• The Mughals were keenly aware of the profits from long-distance trade. Many Mughal noblemen and queens owned ships during Akbar's time. Efforts were made to ensure security and stability in the countryside, including the construction of sarais (resting places) for traders and travelers. Furthermore, shipbuilding activities were encouraged, and regions like Gujarat and Bengal were annexed to secure access to lucrative trade routes.