Class 7 History Chapter 2 Notes - New Kings and Kingdoms

Several major ruling dynasties emerged in different parts of the subcontinent between the seventh and twelfth centuries.

The major ruling dynasties 

The Emergence of New Dynasties

As the power of kings and emperors fluctuated across the Indian subcontinent, new dynasties emerged from the ranks of big landlords and warrior chiefs, reshaping the political landscape by asserting their independence and establishing powerful kingdoms.

Big Landlords and Warrior Chiefs (Samantas):

• By the 7th century, various regions of the subcontinent had big landlords and warrior chiefs known as Samantas.
• These Samantas were recognized by existing kings as their subordinates.
• They were required to bring gifts to their kings, attend the royal court, and provide military support.

Rise to Power and Independence:

• As these Samantas gained more power and wealth, they began to declare themselves as Maha-Samanta or Maha-Mandaleshvara (the great lord of a region).
• Some even asserted their independence from their overlords.

Example of the Rashtrakutas:

• The Rashtrakutas in the Deccan were initially subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
• In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord.
• Dantidurga performed a ritual called Hiranyagarbha (golden womb), which was believed to transform him into a Kshatriya (warrior class) even if he was not one by birth.

Dantidurga: Founder of Rasthrakuta Empire

New Kingdoms by Enterprising Families:

• Some ambitious individuals from Brahmana families used their military skills to establish new kingdoms.
• Kadamba Mayurasharman established a kingdom in Karnataka, and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra founded a kingdom in Rajasthan, both leaving their traditional professions to take up arms.

Administration in the Kingdoms 

During the period of new dynasties, kings not only adopted grand titles but also shared their power and responsibilities with various groups to effectively manage their kingdoms.

King was given big titles like Maharaja-Adhiraja

Grand Titles of Kings:

• New kings took up impressive titles such as Maharaja-Adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and Tribhuvana-Chakravartin (lord of the three worlds).
• These titles reflected their authority, though in practice, they often shared power with Samantas (subordinate rulers), as well as with associations of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.
  

Resource Collection and Usage:

• Kings obtained resources primarily from producers like peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of their produce.
• These resources were used to finance the king’s court, military expenses, and the construction of temples and forts, reinforcing the king’s power and prestige.

Variety of Taxes:

In kingdoms like that of the Cholas in Tamil Nadu, a wide range of taxes were imposed. The most common taxes included:

• Vetti: A tax paid in the form of forced labor.
• Kadamai: Land revenue.
• Other taxes were levied on everyday activities, such as thatching houses, using ladders to climb palm trees, and succession to family property.

Hereditary Administration:

• Revenue collection and administrative roles were often hereditary, passed down within influential families.
• The army also followed this pattern, with key positions frequently held by close relatives of the king, ensuring loyalty and stability within the kingdom.

Prashastis and Land Grants

Prashastis and land grants were crucial tools in ancient Indian administration, offering insights into how rulers wished to be remembered and rewarding those who served the kingdom, particularly Brahmanas.

What are Prashastis?

• Prashastis are inscriptions or written documents that praise the deeds and qualities of kings.
• They were composed by learned Brahmanas, who were sometimes involved in the administration of the kingdom.
• Although prashastis often exaggerated or idealized the achievements of rulers, they provide valuable insights into how kings wanted to be remembered—as valiant, victorious, and powerful leaders.

A set of copper plates recording a grant of land made by a ruler

Example of Nagabhata’s Prashasti:

• A famous prashasti, written in Sanskrit and found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the achievements of Nagabhata, a Pratihara king.
• The prashasti recounts his victories over various rulers and regions, including Andhra, Sind, Vidarbha, Kalinga, and others, showcasing his military prowess.

Role of Brahmanas:

• Kings often rewarded Brahmanas with land grants as a sign of favor and to secure their loyalty.
• These land grants were meticulously recorded on copper plates, which served as legal documents for those who received the land.
• The involvement of Brahmanas in both composing prashastis and receiving land grants highlights their important role in the administration and cultural life of the kingdom.
  

Land Grants:

• Land grants were a common way for kings to reward loyal subjects, particularly Brahmanas, for their services.
• The grants were documented on copper plates, which were given to the recipients as proof of ownership.
• These grants were often located in different parts of the kingdom and were used for various purposes, including agriculture and the maintenance of temples.
  

Kalhana’s Critique:

• Unlike many prashasti writers, Kalhana, a historian from Kashmir, offered a more critical perspective in his writings.
• He composed a historical poem detailing the kings of Kashmir, using a variety of sources such as inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts, and earlier histories.
• Kalhana’s work is notable for its critical approach to rulers and their policies, providing a more balanced view of history.

Warfare for Wealth

Warfare was a common strategy among medieval Indian rulers to expand their kingdoms and accumulate wealth. Control over key regions and the desire to demonstrate power drove many of these conflicts.

Struggles for Control:

• Many ruling dynasties sought to expand their territories by controlling other regions.
• A particularly coveted area was Kanauj in the Ganga valley.
• For centuries, the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj, leading to a prolonged conflict known as the Tripartite Struggle.
  

Targeting Temples:

• Rulers often demonstrated their power by building large temples, which became symbols of wealth and resources.
• When kingdoms clashed, these temples were prime targets for attacks because of their immense riches.
• Mahmud of Ghazni from Afghanistan is a notable example; he raided the Indian subcontinent 17 times between 1000 and 1025 CE.
• His raids targeted wealthy temples, including the famous Somnath Temple in Gujarat, and the plundered wealth was used to build his capital city at Ghazni.
  

Expansions and Conflicts:

• Other rulers who engaged in warfare to expand their kingdoms included the Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans.
• They ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer and attempted to extend their control to the west and east.
• This expansion led to conflicts with the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
• The Chahamana ruler Prithviraja III (1168–1192 CE) is remembered for his battles against Sultan Muhammad Ghori. He defeated Ghori in 1191 but was defeated in the following year, 1192.

A Closer Look: The Cholas

From Uraiyur to Thanjavur

• The Cholas rose to power when Vijayalaya, a member of the ancient Chola family from Uraiyur, seized control of the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar, a minor ruling clan who were under the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. 

• In the mid-ninth century, Vijayalaya established the city of Thanjavur and built a temple dedicated to the goddess Nishumbhasudini.
• Vijayalaya's successors expanded their kingdom by conquering neighbouring regions, including the territories of the Pandyan and Pallava dynasties to the south and north. 
• Rajaraja I, regarded as the most influential Chola ruler, ascended the throne in 985 and further extended the empire's control over these areas. 
• He also restructured the empire's administration. 
• Rajaraja's son, Rajendra I, pursued his father's policies, invading the Ganga Valley, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asian countries and building a navy for these campaigns.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

• The magnificent temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, constructed by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are wonders of architecture and sculpture. 
• Chola temples often became the focal points of communities that developed around them. 
• These temples served as centres for craft production.

Brihadisvara Temple At Thanjavur

• Temples were gifted with land by both rulers and others. 

• The output of this land was used to support various specialists who worked and often lived near the temple, including priests, garland makers, cooks, cleaners, musicians, and dancers. 
• In other words, temples were not only places for worship but also hubs for economic, social, and cultural activities.
• One of the most notable crafts associated with temples was the creation of bronze statues. 

 A Bronze Sculpture

• Chola bronze sculptures are considered among the best in the world. They often depict gods, goddesses, and various deities with life-like features.
• Although most of the statues were of gods, some were also made of devotees.

Agriculture and Irrigation

The Cholas achieved a lot due to advancements in agriculture.  The Kaveri River splits into several smaller channels before reaching the Bay of Bengal.  These channels often overflow, leaving fertile soil on their banks. 

• The water from these channels is essential for agriculture, especially rice cultivation.
• Agriculture had already developed in other parts of Tamil Nadu, but it was only in the 5th or 6th century that large-scale cultivation began in this region. 
• Forests needed to be cleared in some areas, while land had to be levelled in others. 
• In the delta region, embankments were built to prevent flooding, and canals were constructed to carry water to the fields. In many areas, two crops were grown annually.
• In many cases, artificial watering of crops was needed. 
• Different methods were used for irrigation, such as digging wells or building large tanks to collect rainwater. 
• Irrigation works require planning, organising labour and resources, maintaining these structures, and deciding how water will be distributed. Many new rulers and villagers were actively involved in these activities.

The Administration of the Empire

The administration was organised through a system of settlements called ur, which were groups of peasant villages.  These groups formed larger units known as nadu, which carried out various administrative tasks such as providing justice and collecting taxes. 

• Rich peasants held significant influence over the affairs of the Nadu under the oversight of the central Chola government. 
• These wealthy landowners were given titles and entrusted with important state positions.
• Brahmanas often received land grants, leading to the establishment of numerous Brahmana settlements in the Kaveri Valley and other parts of South India. 

• Each settlement was governed by an assembly or sabha, consisting of notable Brahmana landholders. 
• These assemblies were highly efficient, and their decisions were documented in inscriptions, often on temple walls. 
• In some cases, trader associations called nagarams also had administrative roles in towns.
• Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Tamil Nadu offer insights into the organisation of the sabha. 
• The sabha had different committees responsible for various tasks, such as maintaining irrigation systems, gardens, and temples. 
• To select committee members, eligible names were written on palm leaf tickets and placed in a pot. 
• A young boy would then draw out the tickets one by one to determine the members of each committee.

Important Dates

• 7th century – Rise of the new dynasties.
• Mid-eighth century – Rise of Rashtrakuta chief as Kshatriya.
• 1168-1192 – Prithviraja III ruled over the regions around Delhi.
• 1191 – Prithviraja III defeated Muhammad Ghori.
• 1192 – Prithviraja III lost a battle and was finished by Muhammad Ghori.
• 985 – Rajaraja I became a great Chola ruler.
• 5th/6th century – The area of Tamil Nadu was opened up for large-scale cultivation.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q.1. Which new dynasties emerged after the 7th century in the subcontinent?

Ans: Many new dynasties emerged after the 7th century like:

• Guijara-Pratiharas
• Rashtrakutas
• Palas
• Cholas
• Chahamanas or Chauhan

Q.2. Who collected the revenue?

Ans:  

• The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families.
• Their positions were often hereditary.
• This was true about the army as well.
• In many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions.

Q.3. Who was Mahmud Ghazni? How did he expand his kingdom?

 Ans:

• One of the best-known such rulers is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan.
• He ruled from 997 to 1030 A.D.
• He extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran, and the north-western part of the subcontinent.
• He Raided the subcontinent almost every year—his targets were wealthy temples, including Somnath, Gujarat.
• He used most of the wealth to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni.
• He was interested in finding out more about the people he conquered.
• He entrusted a scholar named al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent.
• This Arabic work, known as the Kitab al-Hind, remains an important source for historians.
• He consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account.